Where is steel mined?

Iron is the metal of war, labor, art

Iron is one of the most common elements: the earth's crust contains about 5% iron. However, only a fortieth part of these reserves is concentrated in the form of deposits suitable for development.

The main iron ore minerals are magnetite, hematite, brown iron ore and siderite. The word “iron” itself comes, as some scientists believe, from the Sanskrit “jalzha” - metal, ore.

Others believe that the Russian name is based on another Sanskrit root - “zhel”, meaning “to shine”, “to glow”.

Meteoric iron

The first iron that fell into the hands of man was not of terrestrial, but of cosmic origin: iron was part of meteorites falling to the Earth. Therefore, the Sumerians called it “heavenly copper”, and the ancient Copts called it “heavenly stone”. During the era of the first dynasties of Ur in Mesopotamia, iron was called an-bar (heavenly iron). The Egyptians always depicted iron objects as blue, the color of the sky. The Ebers Papyrus (previously 1500 BC) speaks of it as a metal of heavenly manufacture.

The largest iron meteorite was found in 1920 in southwestern Africa. This is the Goba meteorite, weighing 60 tons.  

The fact that ancient people initially used iron of meteorite origin is evidenced by the widespread myths among some peoples about gods who dropped iron objects and tools from the sky - plows, axes.

Meteoric iron is cold forged, so people began to make simple tools from it. Meteoric iron was processed in the same way as copper.

During cold forging, it acquires the desired shape and at the same time becomes stronger and harder, and annealing in fire makes the forged metal soft again.

Raw iron

Despite the widespread use of iron on earth after the Bronze Age, the method of obtaining it directly from the ore did not change for 3000 years, until Europe in the 13th century. The blast furnace was not invented.

This method was called “raw ore”, since “raw” swamp or meadow ore was placed in a clay-lined pit along with charcoal, and then blown through a hole in the lower part of the pit using hand and later mechanical bellows.

As a result of this, iron oxide turned into metal, and the waste rock flowed down, and at the very bottom of the furnace, iron grains accumulated, which, sticking together, formed a “kritsa,” that is, a loose spongy mass impregnated with slag. The white-hot kritsa was taken out, quickly forged, squeezing out the slag from it, and welded into a monolithic piece of cake-shaped iron.

Iron itself was an alloy with carbon, the percentage of which did not exceed hundredths. Nowadays, the name of an iron-carbon alloy depends on the proportions of carbon to metal: if iron contains up to 2% carbon, then it is called steel. It is worth noting that if carbon is less than 0.25%, then the alloy is called mild steel (low-carbon), and according to the old terminology it was called iron. When the carbon content is more than 2%, the iron alloy is called cast iron.

The mystery of the ancient column

In Delhi, there is the famous Qutub Column, weighing about 6.5 tons, its height is 7.5 m, its diameter is 42 cm at the base and up to 30 cm at the top. It is made of almost pure iron (99.72%), which explains its longevity. So far no rust has been found on it. The column was erected in 415 in honor of King Chandragupta II. According to popular belief, whoever leans his back against the column and clasps his hands behind it will have his cherished wish come true.

How were ancient metallurgists able to produce this wonderful column, before which time is powerless? Ancient India has long been famous for the skill of its metallurgists. Iron smelting in India is mentioned in the Rig Vedas - sacred books dating back to approximately the 13th-12th centuries. BC e. Thus, by the time the column was created, metallurgy in India had at least a thousand-and-a-half-year history, and iron had already begun to be used for the manufacture of plows.

There is still no consensus on the method of manufacturing this remarkable column. Some authors believe that the column was made by welding individual ends weighing 36 kg each and then forging them.

According to other experts, ancient metallurgists, to obtain pure iron, ground a sponge of wrought iron into powder and sifted it.

And then the resulting pure iron powder was heated to red heat and under the blows of a hammer its particles stuck together into one whole - now this is called the method of powder metallurgy.

Unsurpassed in casting

The blast furnace process produces three types of cast iron:

• foundry (gray),
• conversion (white),
• special cast iron (ferroalloys).

Casting from gray cast iron works well in compression, is two times weaker in bending and three to four times weaker in tension - these properties must be taken into account when designing art products intended for casting.

Gray cast iron, due to its high corrosion resistance, is extremely widely used in the manufacture of exterior products: park decorative sculptures, vases and fountains, garden fences, gates, tombstones and gratings.

And its durability and abrasion resistance make it an indispensable material for steps and stair railings.

Finally, exceptionally high casting properties make it possible to cast the finest openwork objects with a beautiful black-brown color. Small household items are also excellently made from cast iron: ashtrays, door handles, toiletries and even watch chains.

In the forge

Steel is the most common alloy from the iron-carbon alloy. Since ancient times, blacksmiths have learned to produce from iron ore not only soft iron, but also high-carbon steel. In Ancient Rus', for example, it, together with iron, was used to make complex patterned welded blades of swords, daggers and knives.

The production technology for these types of products was incredibly complex and labor-intensive. It is no coincidence that ancient Russian blacksmiths were revered as a special privileged class. And in the early pagan era they were considered the most powerful, wise and irreplaceable people, for the god of thunder and lightning Perun himself was their patron and adviser.

In ancient Russian written sources, steel is called by special terms: “Ocel”, “Kharolug” and “Uklad”. When talking about iron and steel, it is impossible not to mention India again. From the records of an Arab geographer of the 12th century.

 you can find out that at that time India was famous for the production of iron and steel. It turns out that this steel served as a direct raw material for obtaining from it those types of damask steel, which were subsequently used by the blacksmiths of Persia, Syria, and Egypt in the manufacture of sword blades and sabers.

And it turns out that the birthplace of Damascus steel was not Damascus, but India.

Metal more precious than gold

In the Middle East and China, iron was known already 2400 BC. e., and in Egypt even earlier. In Central Europe, the Early Iron Age occurs around 1000-450 BC. e. This era is called Holstatt after the name of the city in Austria, in the vicinity of which archaeologists found many iron objects.

The Khalibres, the legendary people who lived in Transcaucasia around 1500 BC, were among the first to obtain iron from ore. e. In cheese furnaces, iron ore was reduced with charcoal and malleable, so-called iron, was obtained. In ancient times, some peoples valued iron more than gold. Only members of the nobility could decorate themselves with iron products, often framed in gold.

In ancient Rome, even wedding rings were made from iron. Documents that have reached us say that one of the Egyptian pharaohs turned to the king of the Hittites with a request to send him iron in exchange for any amount of gold. In Egyptian tombs, along with other valuables, a necklace was found in which iron beads alternated with gold.

Multi-colored metal with a pattern

It is not unusual for any of the metals known to us to change color when subjected to any kind of processing. The “palette” of a particular metal depends on the degree of heating, the processing itself, and the chemical properties. But it is impossible to imagine blue gold or red silver. On the contrary, iron, and accordingly steel and cast iron in all their “guises,” has a color range incomparable to any other metal.

When cold, it can be gray, black, almost white, blue, and blue, golden and reddish. Moreover, iron is the only metal that can decorate itself with decorative patterns that appear as if from within. The variations of this textured ornament are endless, and they cannot be classified as one of the generally known ones, since this pattern is created by the metal itself.

Other articles on similar topics

Source: https://TochMeh.ru/info/iron.php

What is iron ore made from?

Take a look around. One way or another, you are 100% likely to stumble upon something whose component is the Ferrum element. He is also iron. Even the phone, tablet or computer with which you are reading this article also contains iron.

Ferrum is the fourth most abundant element on our planet. Being so popular, it simplifies the process of own production as much as possible. Unfortunately, it is still not found in its pure form, so it will have to be extracted from ore. Fortunately, extracting it from minerals and obtaining pure “Fe” is much easier than, say, uranium or even aluminum.

In this article we will look at the question of what is made from iron ore, how iron is extracted from it and where it is used.

Properties of ores

Answering the question: what properties does iron ore have is not entirely simple. If only because the list of properties depends on the percentage of a given metal in the ore and the amount of foreign impurities. For example, red iron ore containing hematite (Fe2O3) contains as much as 70% of the total iron.

In general, by the way, only those where the ores contain 40% iron or more are considered viable iron mining. This figure really makes it clear that iron is widespread in the surrounding world many times more than other elements. For example, for the same uranium, its content in the ore in the amount of 2% would be considered an unprecedented success

But let's return to our red iron ore. When characterizing iron ore, we can say that red iron ore ranges from a powdery substance to a dense one.

Limonite (also known as brown iron ore) is also an iron ore, but it is a porous and friable rock containing significant proportions of phosphorus and manganese. Clay is often used as waste rock. Due to this, by the way, it is quite easy to extract iron. That’s why cast iron is often made from it.

Spar iron ore with siderite at its head is a rather rare mineral, which does not make it a production resource. It also contains quite a lot of clay.

Black-blue magnetic ores can be as rich in iron as red iron ore. But their main feature is, of course, the properties of magnetism. Let them be lost with a strong increase in temperature. Even though magnetic iron ore is much rarer than others, its benefits are obvious.

Methods for extracting iron from ore

Iron ore is most often obtained in blast furnaces. The principle of operation of this method is to reduce iron from its oxides using coal, in the form of coke. Coal, oxidized in a furnace under the influence of oxygen, turns into carbon monoxide (CO). Then, the carbon monoxide heated in the furnace reacts with iron oxide (Fe2O3), resulting in carbon dioxide molecules and reduced iron molecules.

The resulting iron is still not perfectly pure. In order to remove all ore impurities from it, flux is then used. Flux is called calcium or magnesium carbonates (in common parlance – limestone and dolomite). When heated to 1000 degrees Celsius, carbonates disintegrate into their oxides, releasing carbon dioxide.

CaCO3 → CaO+CO2

Next, calcium or magnesium oxide reacts with iron impurities (for example, with quartz)

CaO+SiO2 → CaSiO3

The resulting slag melts very easily in the furnace. It floats on the surface, which makes it quite easy to separate it from the iron. Such an iron melt is still not the cleanest due to the significant presence of carbon atoms (coal). An alloy of iron and carbon is called cast iron.

Iron is a fairly active element and therefore very susceptible to corrosion. Then, you should not leave items with a high iron content in the open air or in places with high humidity.

Iron mining in Russia and the world

In terms of iron ore production, Russia can boast only 5-6% of the global level. But as far as reserves for potential further production are concerned, this is a confident first place. 18% of the world's iron ore is located in Russia. In second and third place are Brazil and Australia. An honorable fourth place went to the “cohabitant in the USSR” - Ukraine, 11 percent.

Source: https://geomix.ru/blog/minerals/chto-delayut-iz-zheleznoj-rudy/

Ferrous metallurgy

One of the leading branches of heavy industry consists of enterprises that are engaged in the extraction of raw materials, production and processing of iron-based metals - steel, cast iron, alloys that are classified as ferrous metals. Ferrous metallurgy enterprises also include those engaged in the extraction and processing of manganese and chromium.

Ferrous metallurgy

Peculiarities

Not only metals are the basis of ferrous metallurgy enterprises. Enterprises for the extraction and processing of related materials, coke, and refractories are also part of the ferrous metallurgy industry.

We can highlight the following features of ferrous metallurgy that are inherent specifically to it, in contrast to the production of non-ferrous metals:

• More than one third of manufactured products (steel and iron-based alloys, cast iron) are the basis of all mechanical engineering;
• More than a quarter of the products are used in construction to create elements of loaded and load-bearing structures.

The specificity of the enterprises of the metallurgical complex of ferrous metallurgy is that they, for the most part, form the basis of the state industry, being, at the same time, one of the highest capital and material intensive.

The organization of metal production at ferrous metallurgy enterprises is characterized by strong regional dependence. Processing ore and producing primary metal (pig iron) requires large amounts of coke, ore raw materials and electricity.

It is estimated that raw materials and fuel account for more than 90% of the total ferrous metal production costs. The need to transport huge masses of ore and fuel raw materials dictates the need to solve problems of rational location of the enterprise.

Most often, ferrous metallurgy enterprises are concentrated in this way:

• Near ore deposits. Fuel delivery required;
• Near fuel sources (coal mining enterprises). The question of supply of ore raw materials remains;
• At the optimal distance between sources of raw materials and fuel.

Most ferrous metal production plants are concentrated near iron ore deposits. This can be explained by the fact that initially, during the years of massive construction of metallurgical enterprises, the recovery of iron from enriched raw materials was carried out using charcoal mined directly near the deposits. When switching to the use of coke, it became more profitable to organize its delivery than to transfer metallurgical production.

It may be noted that the dependence of production on electricity is not indicated here, although the need for it is extremely high. This is explained by the fact that the transmission of electrical energy, even over long distances, is not comparable in complexity of organization and cost with the delivery of heavy and bulky production materials.

Enterprises for recycling ferrous scrap metal (conversion metallurgy) are concentrated near large mechanical engineering centers. Raw materials

The raw material base is the basis of metallurgical production. Depending on the type of metallurgical enterprise, the sources of raw materials may be different. In particular, ferrous metallurgy can be divided into the following industries:

• Full cycle enterprises. Most stages of the production cycle, ore beneficiation, coke production, metal smelting and rolling are concentrated at one facility.
• Processing metallurgical enterprises. One of the stages, and this is mainly the production of steels and alloys, is separated into a separate industry.
• Small ferrous metallurgy. It is characterized by the fact that metal production shops are part of machine-building enterprises.

The raw material of ferrous metallurgy for processing and small enterprises is the semi-finished product for steel production - cast iron, scrap metal and other waste from the main metallurgical production. This group of industries includes the production of ferroalloys, which contain various alloying additives.

Ferrous metal ore mining

Ore mining, beneficiation, and smelting characterize full-cycle enterprises. Ferrous metallurgy is characterized by the use of raw materials with a high percentage of metal with large volumes of processing. Mining and beneficiation of ore requires significant expenditures of electrical energy and is demanding on the availability of available water resources.

The full-cycle metallurgical industry for the smelting and processing of ferrous metals includes a large number of enterprises, the main ones of which perform the following tasks:

• Extraction of metal ores, their enrichment.
• Extraction and preparation of auxiliary non-metallic raw materials - refractory clay, limestone fluxes.
• Coke and chemical industry, including coke oven gas production.
• Smelting of ferrous metal, cast iron, castings, carbon steel and rolled products.
• Recycling of ferrous metal scrap and production waste.

If we take metal manufacturing technology as a basis, we can distinguish the following types of metallurgical cycle:

• cast iron blast furnace enterprises;
• steel production, including open-hearth, electric arc, converter, continuous casting;
• rolling production.

Metallurgical production

The basis of full cycle metallurgical production is blast furnace production of cast iron. The technology itself for recovering iron from ore using the blast furnace process involves saturating iron with a large amount of carbon, resulting in cast iron.

Steel is characterized by a lower carbon content and the inclusion of alloying additives, which requires additional processing stages in open-hearth furnaces, electric arc furnaces or oxygen converters. Thus, producing steel requires a lengthy and energy-intensive process.

Starting from the middle of the last century, blast-furnace metallurgy began to develop, which uses the direct reduction of iron from enriched raw materials.

Equipment and technology for blast-free steel production make it possible to reduce the energy consumption of production by reducing technological process operations; moreover, the steel is cleaner, without harmful impurities of sulfur and phosphorus, as in traditional production.

The role of ferrous metallurgy in industry

As already mentioned, iron and steel products are the basis for heavy industry.

Ferrous metallurgy enterprises produce the bulk of finished products in the form of cast and pig iron, open-hearth and converter steel, as well as finished rolled products, steel and cast iron pipes.

The production of ferroalloys is also included in the ferrous metallurgy industry and is important for further use in the composition of alloy steels.

Pig iron is subsequently smelted and decarburized to produce steels with different carbon contents.

Most steel is produced in the form of ingots, which are subsequently forged and rolled to produce profiles of various sections:

• blanks;
• sheet metal;
• long products;
• seamless pipes;
• special types.

Long rolled steel profiles are used directly in structures (bridges, building floors, railway rails). The most common long products for direct use are:

• brand;
• I-beam;
• channel;
• corner.

All of the listed long products are produced in a wide range of standardized sizes.

Classic steel pipes of welded structure are produced from rolled sheets.

Special types of rental include such complex elements as:

• axles and wheels of railway equipment;
• gear wheels for various purposes.

Shaped casting of cast iron is used for machine beds for a wide variety of purposes (metal and woodworking machines).

Conversion plants are engaged in the processing of pig iron, metal scrap, and metallurgical waste. Currently, more than half of the output of the metallurgical process is pigment metal obtained by melting and refining scrap metal.

Source: https://stankiexpert.ru/spravochnik/materialovedenie/chernaya-metallurgiya.html

Types and characteristics of iron alloys

Iron is considered the most popular material. It is used in all industries. People have been familiar with this metal since ancient times. When blacksmiths learned to obtain pure material, it surpassed the alloys known at that time and forced them out of production. Iron alloys appeared as a result of people's attempts to change the characteristics of this metal.

Composition and properties

The structure and properties of iron determine its popularity in various industries. The composition is a basic material with admixtures of other substances. The amount of additional metals does not exceed 0.8%. The main parameters include:

1. Melting point - 1539 degrees Celsius.
2. Brinell hardness - 350–450 MN/sq. m.
3. Specific gravity - 55.8.
4. Density - 7.409 g/cm3.
5. Thermal conductivity - 74.04 W/(m K) (at room temperature).
6. Electrical conductivity - 9.7·10-8 ohm·m.

We must not forget that iron is considered one of the most important elements in the human body. However, it is extremely difficult to absorb from food. The daily norm that a man should consume is 10 mg. Women should consume 20 mg of this substance for the body to function normally.

History of discovery

Everyone remembers the “Iron Age” from school. This is the period in history when man first learned to extract this metal from ore. The Iron Age spans the period from the 9th to the 7th century BC. This metal had a huge influence on the development of people of that time.

According to its characteristics, it has replaced mixtures of non-ferrous metals. Tools, weapons, armor, materials for construction and much more were made from it. Gradually, blacksmiths began to mix it with other metals to create new materials.

This is how new alloys appeared.

Areas of application

This material is used in various industries:

1. Mixtures and homogeneous metal are used in mechanical engineering. Internal parts, housings, and moving mechanisms are made from them.
2. Shipbuilding, aircraft manufacturing, rocketry.
3. Construction - production of fasteners, consumables.
4. Instrument making - manufacturing electronics for the home.
5. Radioelectronics - creation of elements for electrical appliances.
6. Medicine, machine tool building, chemical industry.
7. Making weapons.

If a homogeneous material is not suitable for something, compounds based on it, the characteristics of which differ significantly, will do.

Types of iron-based alloys

An iron alloy is a compound that consists of a base metal and additional impurities. Compounds based on this material are called ferrous metals. These include:

1. Steel is a combination of carbon with other elements. Carbon in the alloy can contain up to 2.14%. There are structural carbon, construction, special and alloy steels.
2. Cast iron is a mixture that is very popular. Compounds can contain up to 3.5% carbon. Additionally, the mixture contains manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur.
3. Perlite is an iron-based mixture. Contains no more than 0.8% carbon.
4. Ferrite is called a pure material. This is due to the low content of carbon and third-party impurities (about 0.04%).
5. Cementite is a chemical compound of iron and carbon.
6. Austenite is a compound with a carbon content of up to 2.14%. Additionally, it contains foreign impurities.

Composition and structure of alloys

Due to the large number of iron-based compounds, markings have been developed that can be used to separate steels with a high carbon content from less carbon ones, determine the presence of the main alloying elements in the composition of the material, and their quantity. Depending on the number of additional elements, the properties of the connections change. These include boron, vanadium, molybdenum, manganese, titanium, carbon, chromium, nickel, silicon, tungsten.

The characteristics of mixtures depend on their structure and composition. This changes strength, ductility, melting point, density, electrical conductivity and other parameters. For example, the structure of cast iron determines its fragility under impacts and heavy physical stress.

Properties and marking of alloys

Regarding labeling, the first numbers that appear on the label indicate the percentage of carbon in the composition. Next come the capital letters of the main alloying elements. Additional letters may begin the marking. They indicate the purpose of the alloy.

Plasticity and toughness will decrease as the amount of carbon in the alloy increases. Other properties of metals are influenced by the main alloying elements.

Production and processing of iron-based alloys

To understand how popular iron-based compounds are produced, we need to briefly talk about the technologies for producing cast iron and steel. You can get steel in several ways:

1. Direct technology. Iron ore pellets are blown through with a mixture of carbon monoxide, oxygen and ammonia. The procedure is carried out in a shaft furnace heated to 1000 degrees.
2. Martin's method. Solid cast iron is melted using open hearth furnaces. Before completing the procedure, the material is saturated with impurities.
3. Electric melting method. With its help, high-quality material is obtained. Processing is carried out in closed ovens at temperatures up to 2200 degrees.
4. Oxygen-converter method. The cast iron located in the furnace is blown with a mixture of oxygen and air, which speeds up the annealing process.

Iron production:

1. Ore preparation. It is crushed to a fine fraction.
2. Grinding of coke coal.
3. Flux crushing.
4. into the oven.

Blast furnaces are used to make cast iron.

In addition to the production processes of the mixtures, they are subjected to additional processing. These are annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering. Characteristics are improving.

Iron alloys are used in various industries.
They have different characteristics, but do not lose the parameters of the base metal included in their composition. Steel metallurgy 1 - iron, solutions, ferrite, austenite, cementite and pearlite

Types and characteristics of iron alloys Link to main publication

Source: https://metalloy.ru/splavy/zheleza

Top 10 strongest metals in the world

The use of metals in everyday life began at the dawn of human development, and the first metal was copper, since it is available in nature and can be easily processed.

It is not without reason that archaeologists during excavations find various products and household utensils made of this metal. In the process of evolution, people gradually learned to combine various metals, obtaining increasingly durable alloys suitable for making tools, and later weapons.

Nowadays, experiments continue, thanks to which it is possible to identify the strongest metals in the world.

10. Titan

Our rating opens with titanium, a high-strength hard metal that immediately attracted attention. The properties of titanium are:

• high specific strength;
• resistance to high temperatures;
• low density;
• corrosion resistance;
• mechanical and chemical resistance.

Titanium is used in the military industry, aviation medicine, shipbuilding, and other areas of production.

9. Uranus

The most famous element, considered one of the strongest metals in the world, and under normal conditions is a weak radioactive metal. In nature, it is found both in a free state and in acidic sedimentary rocks. It is quite heavy, widely distributed everywhere and has paramagnetic properties, flexibility, malleability, and relative ductility. Uranium is used in many areas of production.

8. Tungsten

Known as the most refractory metal in existence, it is one of the strongest metals in the world. It is a solid transitional element of a shiny silver-gray color. It has high strength, excellent refractoriness, and resistance to chemical influences. Due to its properties, it can be forged and drawn into a thin thread. Known as tungsten filament.

7. Rhenium

Among the representatives of this group, it is considered a high-density transition metal with a silvery-white color. It occurs in nature in its pure form, but is found in molybdenum and copper raw materials. It is characterized by high hardness and density, and has excellent refractoriness. It has increased strength, which is not lost due to repeated temperature changes. Rhenium is an expensive metal and has a high cost. Used in modern technology and electronics.

6. Osmium

A shiny silver-white metal with a slightly bluish tint, it belongs to the platinum group and is considered one of the strongest metals in the world. Similar to iridium, it has a high atomic density, high strength and hardness.

Since osmium is a platinum metal, it has properties similar to iridium: refractoriness, hardness, brittleness, resistance to mechanical stress, as well as to the influence of aggressive environments.

It has found wide application in surgery, electron microscopy, the chemical industry, rocketry, and electronic equipment.

5. Beryllium

It belongs to the group of metals and is a light gray element with relative hardness and high toxicity. Due to its unique properties, beryllium is used in a wide variety of production areas:

• nuclear energy;
• aerospace engineering;
• metallurgy;
• laser technology;
• nuclear energy.

Due to its high hardness, beryllium is used in the production of alloying alloys and refractory materials.

4. Chrome

Next on the list of the ten strongest metals in the world is chromium - a hard, high-strength metal of a bluish-white color, resistant to alkalis and acids.

It occurs in nature in its pure form and is widely used in various branches of science, technology and production. Chromium is used to create various alloys that are used in the manufacture of medical and chemical processing equipment.

When combined with iron, it forms an alloy called ferrochrome, which is used in the manufacture of metal-cutting tools.

3. Tantalum

Tantalum deserves bronze in the ranking, as it is one of the strongest metals in the world. It is a silvery metal with high hardness and atomic density. Due to the formation of an oxide film on its surface, it has a leaden tint.

The distinctive properties of tantalum are high strength, refractoriness, resistance to corrosion, and resistance to aggressive environments. The metal is a fairly ductile metal and can be easily machined. Today tantalum is successfully used:

• in the chemical industry;
• during the construction of nuclear reactors;
• in metallurgical production;
• when creating heat-resistant alloys.

2. Ruthenium

The second place in the ranking of the most durable metals in the world is occupied by ruthenium, a silvery metal belonging to the platinum group. Its peculiarity is the presence of living organisms in the muscle tissue.

Valuable properties of ruthenium are high strength, hardness, refractoriness, chemical resistance, and the ability to form complex compounds.

Ruthenium is considered a catalyst for many chemical reactions and acts as a material for the manufacture of electrodes, contacts, and sharp tips.

1. Iridium

The most durable metals in the world are led by iridium - a silver-white, hard and refractory metal that belongs to the platinum group. In nature, the high-strength element is extremely rare and is often combined with osmium. Due to its natural hardness, it is difficult to machine and is highly resistant to chemicals. Iridium reacts with great difficulty to exposure to halogens and sodium peroxide.

This metal plays an important role in everyday life. It is added to titanium, chromium and tungsten to improve resistance to acidic environments, used in the manufacture of stationery, and used in jewelry to create jewelry. The cost of iridium remains high due to its limited presence in nature.

Source: https://top10a.ru/top-10-samye-prochnye-metally-v-mire.html

Metallurgy - what is it? Metallurgical industry centers:

Mechanical engineering, construction, electrical engineering - all these and many other areas cannot be imagined without metallurgy. What is this industry like? How are metals mined? What are they? The answers to these questions can be found in the article.

Definition

Metallurgy is a branch of industry that deals with the extraction of raw materials, the production of alloys, the disposal of waste, and the production of products from the resulting alloys.

Metallurgy, depending on the raw materials, is divided into ferrous and non-ferrous. The first group includes metals containing iron, chromium and manganese. To the second - all the rest.

The process of manufacturing metal products includes the following steps:

• ore mining and preparation;
• redistribution;
• disposal.

The metallurgical industry includes processes for the production of many elements of the periodic table, except gases and halogens.

Black

Ferrous metallurgy is a branch of metallurgy that deals with the production of alloys from iron, manganese and chromium.

In nature, iron occurs in ore in the forms of carbonates, hydroxide and oxide. Therefore, the first stage of production in ferrous metallurgy is the liberation of iron from ore using a blast furnace at a temperature of more than +1000 C. If necessary, at this stage the properties of the metal are changed.

Ferrous metallurgy includes such areas as:

• extraction and enrichment of non-metallic raw materials;
• production of ferrous metals;
• production of steel and cast iron pipes;
• coke industry;
• secondary processing of raw materials.

Products produced at metallurgical plants are:

• main, that is, the final product, ready for use;
• by-product, that is, a product that is obtained during the production of the main product;
• by-products, that is, products remaining after the production of the main and by-products, which are used either as recyclable materials or as is.

Production

Metals are obtained by extraction from ores or recycled materials. All ore containing valuable elements is divided into rich (more than 55% valuable elements), poor (less than 50%) and poor (less than 25%).

There are three main methods used to extract ore:

• open;
• underground;
• combined.

The open method is the most common and economical. With this method, the enterprise organizes the necessary infrastructure and develops the deposit in quarries.

The underground method is used when the rocks lie deep underground. Compared to the open method, this method is more expensive due to the need for special technical equipment. In addition, it is more relevant than other methods, since the reserves of iron ore lying close to the surface are practically depleted. More than 70% of iron ore is mined this way.

The combined method, as the name implies, combines the two above methods.

Production

In metallurgy, the production of ferrous metals is understood as a complex technological process that can be divided into two stages:

• iron production;
• processing of cast iron into steel.

The necessary materials for the production of iron are iron ore, fuel (coke) and flux. It is in this order that they are loaded into blast furnaces, where, under the weight of their own mass, they fall to the bottom of the furnace.

At the bottom of the stove there are holes - firms through which heated air is supplied to maintain the combustion process.

As a result of smelting, iron and other elements are reduced from the ore, and the slag and cast iron obtained in the process are poured through special holes - the slag and cast iron tapholes.

The process of converting cast iron into steel involves reducing the level of carbon and impurities by selective oxidation and converting them into slag during smelting. To do this, ferroalloys containing Al, Mn and Si are introduced into molten cast iron. They form sparingly soluble oxides in steel, which partially float into the slag.

Products

Ferrous metallurgy products are widely used in mechanical engineering, construction, public utilities, the military-industrial complex and agriculture.

The main products of ferrous metallurgy include:

• rolled metal (sheets, shapes, sections);
• finished products;
• hardware;
• redistribution;
• pig iron and foundry;
• coke;
• refractories;
• chemical products.

Colored

Non-ferrous metallurgy includes all types of metals, except iron-containing ones. The industry itself is divided into metallurgy of light and heavy metals, which are based on the properties of the metal such as density and weight. All types of metals used in non-ferrous metallurgy can be divided into:

• light, which include magnesium, aluminum, titanium;
• heavy, which include tin, zinc, lead, nickel, copper;
• rare earths, which include erbium, terbium, samarium, praseodymium, neodymium, lanthanum, dysprosium, cerium, yttrium;
• artificial, which include americium, technetium;
• minor ones, which include mercury, cobalt, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, bismuth;
• scattered, which include selenium, germanium, thallium, indium, gallium, zirconium;
• alloying agents, which include vanadium, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, tungsten;
• noble ones, which include platinum, gold, silver.

Compared to ferrous metals, non-ferrous metallurgy is more energy-intensive. This is explained by the low content of useful substances in non-ferrous metals and, as a consequence, a large amount of waste that requires special disposal and processing by chemical methods.

Extraction of raw materials and their enrichment

Non-ferrous metals are obtained from ore concentrate, that is, from enriched ore. Beneficiation refers to the separation of ore into metals and minerals, which makes it possible to artificially increase the metal content in the raw material. When separating, technologies such as crushing, grinding, sorting and processing by dewatering are used. After the metal is extracted from the ore, it is processed and polished.

After all these processes, the metal is sent to workshops or enterprises where the necessary products will be manufactured - machines, pipes, machines, etc.

Refining

Crude metals contain various impurities that affect the physical and chemical properties of metals, and also contain important expensive elements, such as gold or silver. Therefore, one of the most important stages of metal processing is refining, that is, cleaning. Refining is carried out in three ways:

• electrolytic - used for deep cleaning of non-ferrous metals;
• chemical, which is also called refining, is used for deep purification of gold;
• pyrometallurgical - used in the production of high-purity metals and is divided into fractional, segregation, and oxidative refining.

Preparation of alloys

An alloy is a substance consisting of two or more metals and non-metals, for example, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic.

Alloys are not made from two similar metals. For example, zinc and lead.

The most valuable alloys are:

• bronze - a compound of copper and tin;
• brass is a compound of copper and zinc;
• duralumin - a compound of aluminum, copper, iron, silicon, magnesium and manganese;
• tungsten carbide - a compound of tungsten with carbon and cobalt;
• nichrome - a compound of nickel, chromium and iron;
• Alni is a compound of non-magnetic aluminum, nickel and cobalt.

Industry products

To a person unfamiliar with metallurgy, when talking about non-ferrous metals, the first things that come to mind are gold and silver. The entire variety of non-ferrous metallurgy was discussed above. Here we will look at the products that are produced in this area. This:

• rolled products - hexagon, rod, wire;
• sheet metal - strip, tape, sheet.

In addition to specialized products, metallurgical plants and combines produce chemical products - chlorine, potash, sulfuric acid, elemental sulfur, zinc and copper sulfate.

Types of bases and factors for their placement

Before considering the main metallurgical bases in the world and in Russia, it is worth briefly describing the types of bases and factors for their location.

In the metallurgical industry there are 3 types of bases.

1. A base that processes its own ore and coal.

2. A base working either with its own ore and imported coal, or with imported ore and its own coal.

3. Operating near coal mines or close to the consumer.

Factors influencing the location of metallurgical centers include:

• consumer, which includes the proximity of large machine-building complexes - the main consumers of steel;
• environmental, which includes outdated enterprises that use one of the dirtiest production methods - the blast furnace process;
• transport, which includes enterprises that use imported ore and coal, as they are located far from their sources;
• fuel, which includes enterprises located near coal mines;
• raw material, which includes enterprises located close to ore deposits.

Metallurgy in the world

The world's metallurgy is concentrated in 98 countries, of which ore is mined in only 50. The leaders are five countries - China, Brazil, Russia, Australia and India, which supply over 80% of raw materials to the world market.

Most of the world's ore reserves are medium to low quality material that requires beneficiation during the production process. There are very few high quality ores in the world.

For example, Russia's reserves, as one of the leaders in the metallurgical industry, account for only 12% of world reserves.

Most ore is mined in China, and useful iron is mined in Russia.

The leading companies that regulate the global process of mining and production of ore and metals are Arcelor Mittal, Hebei Iron & Steel, and Nippon Steel.

Arcelor Mittal is a company formed through the merger of enterprises in India and Luxembourg. It owns enterprises in 60 countries, including the Russian Severstal-Resource and the Ukrainian Krivorozhstal.

Hebei Iron & Steel Group is another company formed through the merger of several companies. But it is not a private, but a state-owned enterprise registered in China. A unique product is produced here - ultra-thin cold-rolled sheets and steel plates. In addition to mining and production, the company is engaged in research and investment.

Nippon Steel and Sumitomo Metal Industries are Japan's leading steel producers. The company's blast furnaces were installed back in 1857.

Metallurgy of Russia

In the Russian economy, metallurgy ranks second after the oil and gas industry. More than 2% of working citizens in the country work in this area at 1.5 thousand enterprises.

In the Russian Federation there are three main ferrous metallurgy bases, the location of which is explained by the proximity of ore sources and coal basins:

• Ural;
• Siberian;
• Central.

The oldest and largest metallurgy enterprise is Ural, where half of all ferrous metallurgy products in Russia are produced. The centers of Ural metallurgy are Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk and Magnitogorsk. The largest enterprises are the Chusovsky Metallurgical Plant and the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant.

The Siberian metallurgical base is the youngest of the three and is being built to replace the Ural one, where metal reserves are almost exhausted. There are only two large metallurgical plants located here - Kuznetsk and West Siberian.

The central metallurgical base is located in the Belgorod and Kursk regions. The largest metallurgical plant and factories are the Novolipetsk Metallurgical Plant and plants in Stary Oskol and Tula.

93% of the output comes from six large metallurgy centers. This:

• PJSC Severstal;
• Mechel OJSC;
• "Evraz"
• OJSC “Metalloinvest”;
• OJSC “Novolipetsk Metallurgical Plant”;
• OJSC Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works.

Metallurgy is an industry that plays an important role in the life of every person.

Source: https://www.syl.ru/article/326020/metallurgiya---eto-chto-takoe-tsentryi-metallurgicheskoy-promyishlennosti

What is the strongest metal in the world - TOP 5 elements

Metals include substances that have specific properties characteristic of them. In this case, high ductility and malleability, as well as electrical conductivity and a number of other parameters are taken into account. Which of them is the strongest metal in the world can be found out from the data below.

About metals in nature

The word “metal” came into Russian from German. Since the 16th century it has been found in books, although quite rarely. Later, in the era of Peter I, it began to be used more often, and then the word had the general meaning of “ore, mineral, metal.” And only during the period of M.V.’s activity. Lomonosov these concepts were differentiated.

In nature, metals are found quite rarely in their pure form. Basically, they are part of various ores, and also form various compounds, such as sulfides, oxides, carbonates and others.

In order to obtain pure metals, and this is very important for their future use, they need to be isolated and then purified. If necessary, metals are alloyed - special impurities are added in order to change their properties.

Currently, there is a division into ferrous metal ores, which include iron, and non-ferrous ores. Precious or noble metals include gold, platinum and silver.

There are metals even in the human body. Calcium, sodium, magnesium, copper, iron - this is a list of these substances that are found in the greatest quantities.

How are metals produced?

Metal-containing ores are considered the source of these most necessary substances for all modern humanity. To find out their exact location, certain search methods are used, which are based on exploration and study of deposits. Metals are obtained as follows:

1. Ore deposits are developed by open-pit or quarry, as well as underground or mine. Combined methods are possible.
2. Ore beneficiation is the separation of useful components from raw materials, so-called ore concentrates.
3. Extraction of metals from enriched ores by chemical or electrolytic reduction using high temperatures or aqueous chemistry.
4. Most often, metals are smelted, the ore and a reducing agent are heated to very high temperatures. For iron, carbon is usually used.

Depending on their further use, metals are divided into groups:

1. Construction materials. Both the metals themselves and their alloys with significantly improved properties are used. In this case, strength, impermeability to liquids and gases, and homogeneity are valued.
2. Materials for tools, most often referring to the working part. Tool steels and hard alloys are suitable for this purpose.
3. Electrical materials. Such metals are used as good conductors of electricity. The most common of them are copper and aluminum. They are also used as materials with high resistance - nichrome and others.

The strongest of metals

The strength of metals is their ability to resist destruction under the influence of internal stresses, which can arise when external forces influence these materials. This is also the property of a structure to maintain its characteristics for a certain time.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ke43Xo3T_aY

Many alloys are quite strong and resistant not only to physical but also chemical influences; they are not pure metals. There are metals that can be called the most durable.

Titanium, which melts at a temperature above 1,941 K (1660±20 °C), uranium, which is a radioactive metal, refractory tungsten, which boils at a temperature of at least 5,828 K (5555 °C). As well as others that have unique properties and are necessary in the process of manufacturing parts, tools and objects using the most modern technologies.

The five most durable of them include metals whose properties are already known; they are widely used in various sectors of the national economy and are used in scientific experiments and developments.

5. Rhenium

Found in molybdenum ores and copper raw materials. Has high hardness and density. Very refractory. Its strength cannot be reduced even under the influence of critical temperature changes. Widely used in many electronic devices and technical means.

4. Beryllium

A rare-earth metal with a silver-gray tint and shiny, crystalline formations when broken. Interestingly, beryllium crystals taste somewhat sweet, which is why it was originally called “glucinium,” which means “sweet.”

Thanks to this metal, a new technology has emerged, which is used in the synthesis of artificial stones - emeralds, aquamarines, for the needs of the jewelry industry. Beryllium was discovered while studying the properties of beryl, a semi-precious stone. In 1828, the German scientist F. Wöller obtained metallic beryllium.

It does not interact with x-rays, therefore, it is actively used to create special devices. In addition, beryllium alloys are used in the manufacture of neutron reflectors and moderators for installation in a nuclear reactor.

Its fire-resistant and anti-corrosion properties, high thermal conductivity make it an indispensable element for creating alloys used in aircraft construction and the aerospace industry.

3. Chrome

This metal was discovered in the Middle Urals. M.V. wrote about him. Lomonosov in his work “The First Foundations of Metallurgy” in 1763. It is very widespread, its most famous and extensive deposits are located in South Africa, Kazakhstan and Russia (Urals). of this metal in ores fluctuates greatly.

Its color is light blue, with a tint. In its pure form it is very hard and can be processed quite well. It serves as an important component for the creation of alloy steels, especially stainless steels, used in the electroplating and aerospace industries.

Its alloy with iron, ferrochrome, is necessary for the production of metal-cutting tools.

2. Tantalum

This metal is considered valuable, since its properties are only slightly lower than those of noble metals. It has strong resistance to various acids and is not susceptible to corrosion.

Tantalum is used in various designs and compounds, for the manufacture of products of complex shapes and as a basis for the production of acetic and phosphoric acids. The metal is used in medicine because it can be combined with human tissue.

The rocket industry needs the heat-resistant alloy of tantalum and tungsten because it can withstand temperatures of 2,500 °C. Tantalum capacitors are installed on radar devices and used in electronic systems as transmitters.

1. Iridium

Iridium is considered one of the strongest metals in the world. The metal is silver in color and very hard. It is classified as a platinum group metal. It is difficult to process and, moreover, refractory. Iridium practically does not interact with caustic substances.

It is used in many industries. Including in jewelry, medical and chemical industries. Significantly improves the resistance of tungsten, chromium and titanium compounds to acidic environments.

Pure iridium is not a toxic material, but its individual compounds can be poisonous.

Despite the fact that many metals have decent characteristics, it is quite difficult to pinpoint exactly which is the strongest metal in the world. To do this, all their parameters are studied in accordance with various analytical systems. But at present, all scientists claim that iridium confidently occupies first place in terms of strength.

Source: https://vseonauke.com/1216373600258362306/kakoj-samyj-prochnyj-metall-v-mire---top-5-elementov/

How diamonds are mined: how mining occurs and how stones are found, where in the world diamonds are mined, which country is the leader in diamond production

Diamonds are one of the most valuable minerals. It is from these that “girls’ best friends” are made – diamonds. However, the path from a raw mineral to a precious stone is quite long. To understand how rare and valuable this material is, you need to have a good understanding of not only how this nugget is formed in nature, but also how diamonds are mined.

Field development is a task that requires serious preparation and financial investment. However, this is only the first step in the process of transforming a natural gem into one of the most expensive stones in the world.

 Where do diamonds come from?

Scientists have still not come to a consensus regarding the process of formation of the strongest mineral. There are several scientific theories about this.

According to the first theory, rough diamonds were formed more than 100 million years ago at a depth of at least 100 km. It was there that optimal conditions were created for the transformation of carbon into solid rock with a different form of crystal lattice, namely high temperature (from 1100 ° C), pressure (at least 35 kilobars) and a homogeneous environment with the absence of a temperature gradient.

As a result of volcanic activity, minerals were brought to the surface. Proof of this is the geography of most deposits (bottom oceans, places near faults in the earth’s crust), as well as their appearance (diamond-bearing pipes), directed vertically upward. Over time, the kimberlites were exposed to water and air and water and eroded, and the rock crumbled, forming “diamond fields.”

The second version of the answer to the question of where diamonds came from was meteorites. During the study and analysis of their composition, tiny particles of diamond crystals were discovered, which led scientists to think about the formation of the mineral during the collision of a celestial body with the earth's surface. Such deposits are called impact deposits.

In the universe there is a white dwarf - the star Lucy, whose core consists of pure diamond. Its diameter is about 4 thousand kilometers, and scientists still cannot calculate its weight in carats.

Extraction methods

Even at the beginning of the 19th century, diamond mining was carried out using a shovel and trays on which river sand was washed and the most promising stones were selected. The modern method is mechanized and often depends on the depth of the rock.

Be sure to check out: Main uses of diamonds

Career

The quarries extract minerals located at a depth of no more than 600 meters. The process of their extraction is quite simple. First, a well is drilled, after which it is mined and exploded. The rock thrown to the surface is sent to processing plants, where valuable minerals are selected.

Important! This method refers to medium-cost options.

Mine

Mine mining technology is more complex and dangerous. However, this is the most common way to discover new diamond deposits. It is not for nothing that the miner’s profession is considered one of the most labor-intensive and dangerous in the world. At great depths, it is necessary to constantly monitor the oxygen level, pump out groundwater, and beware of gas explosions.

The rock is mined using special crushing combines, then it is loaded into trolleys and delivered to the surface. And from there it is delivered to enrichment factories.

Placers

Alluvial deposits are becoming increasingly rare in the modern world. Most of them were discovered and developed in past centuries. Extraction is carried out in the classical way by washing through large sieves.

Top diamond mining countries

Diamond gemstones are mined all over the world. India was considered the most famous miner of precious ore in the last century. This is where almost all the largest and most famous diamonds come from.

Today, if we talk about the geography of diamond ore, we should note Africa, the Arctic Circle, Latin America and the regions of the Far East. However, over the past few decades, Canada and Namibia have also become actively involved in global production. If we talk about the top diamond-mining countries, it looks like this:

• Russia;
• Australia;
• Botswana;
• SOUTH AFRICA;
• Congo;
• Angola;
• Canada;
• Namibia.

Almost half of the world's diamonds are found on the African continent. Climatic conditions and geological features of ore occurrence have significantly reduced the cost of mining this valuable raw material. Botswana alone provides a fifth of the world market with minerals, although mining has been going on there since the 70s of the last century.

South Africa is known for the largest specimens. Angola and Namibia increase their diamond production every year and rise to the top of the mining countries.

The highest concentration of pure diamonds has been found in kimberlite pipes in Australia. Rare red diamonds were also found here (their second deposit in Brazil), which are sold only at the world's largest auctions.

Canada is the youngest and most promising supplier of “future” diamonds. Every year the country supplies the market with at least 12 million carats of precious stones.

In Russia, the richest deposits were found in Yakutia. Our country ranks first in the world in the production of jewelry, not technical raw materials. Since the largest reserves are located in permafrost, the process of extracting these valuable minerals is labor-intensive and expensive. However, it is in Russia that the purest diamonds are found, which justify numerous financial and technical costs.

The first alluvial deposits were discovered in the last century in the Urals. This gave scientists reason to think about the presence of larger diamond deposits in the country.

Where are the most gems found?

The largest deposits in the world are:

• Aikhal in Yakutia;
• Argyll in Australia;
• Catoca in Angola;
• Kimberley in South Africa;
• Jwaneng and Orapa in Botswana;
• Minas Gerais in Brazil.

Also, some of the richest mines can be found in India and the USA.

The path from kimberlite to diamond

The process of diamond formation is very long. These precious crystals have been “growing” for hundreds of years. They can be located underground for several more millions, changing, under conditions of enormous pressure and constant high temperature, the trigonal shape of the crystal lattice of graphite to the tetrahedral shape of diamond.

The explosion of magma “pushes” the rock to the surface, resulting in the formation of kimberlite pipes. These are primary deposits, which under the influence of natural factors can be transformed into secondary deposits - placers.

Interesting! After mining, suitable nuggets are selected for jewelry factories. Where cutting masters give the stones shine and a shape familiar to jewelry. From the moment it is extracted from the ground until it reaches the counter of a jewelry store, the price of a diamond can increase tenfold.

Main conclusions

Diamond mining is a technologically complex and financially expensive process, but the high cost of raw materials pays off most of the costs.

1. The main version of the formation of diamonds is the transformation of carbon located in the earth's crust under the influence of pressure and high temperature.
2. All deposits can be divided into primary (kimberlite and amproite pipes) and secondary (placers).
3. The main method of extracting raw materials is quarry and mine.
4. Russia ranks first in the world in the production of gem-quality diamonds.
5. One of the largest deposits is located in Yakutia.

The long process of formation and complex mining method make diamond such a rare and valuable material. Its unique physical properties also play an important role, allowing the stone to be actively used not only in the jewelry industry, but also in industrial and high-tech areas.

Source: https://kamnistar.com/interesnoe/kak-dobyvayut-almazy/

How diamonds are mined in Yakutia: deposits, methods

The physical properties of a diamond are so unique that this particular stone is considered the “king” among all others. It is both the hardest of all known minerals on Earth and the most expensive, although quite common.

Origin of diamonds

How long it took for crystals to form in nature is unknown, but in order for the carbon lattice of graphite to transform into the carbon lattice of diamond, the following conditions are necessary: ​​a depth of at least 100 kilometers, a pressure of 35-50 kilobars and a temperature above 1100 degrees Celsius.

As magma breaks through the sedimentary layer of the earth's crust, a tube is formed that may contain diamonds. Based on the deposit in the Kimberley area in southern Africa, such pipes began to be called kimberlite. Their age is about 400-700 million years.

Where are diamonds mined?

About 35 countries located on geologically stable continents are involved in mining. The largest explored deposits in terms of diamond content are located in South Africa, Russia, India, Brazil, and the northern part of America.

A deposit is considered “rich” if a ton of ore contains 3 carats (a little more than half a gram) of diamonds.

Diamond deposits in Russia

In the 19th century, in the Perm province, the first diamond was found by chance, by a 14-year-old serf peasant, Pavel Popov, who worked in a gold mine and, while panning gold-bearing ore, found a stone weighing half a carat.

Carat is a measure of the weight of a gemstone, based on the size of a carob seed (Ceratonia capita). The seed was brown in color, hard and flat and had a constant mass, so it was used as a measure since biblical times. 1 carat = 0.19 grams

Diamond mining in Russia is carried out in two areas: in the Arkhangelsk region and in Yakutia.

The search for diamond deposits in the USSR has been thought about since the 30s, when it was suggested that conditions similar to the African continent - ancient volcanic shields - could also exist in Siberia. After the Great Patriotic War, exploration expeditions began in Siberia.

Since 1949, ten kimberlite pipes have been explored. In 1954, geologist Larisa Popugaeva discovered the first primary deposit. She telegraphed in code: “We lit a pipe of Peace, the tobacco is excellent.” The kimberlite pipe was given the name “Mir”, and then the city received the name from it: Mirny. Twelve tubes are currently in industrial development.

Diamond deposits are divided into primary - bedrock and secondary - alluvial. By bedrock we mean kimberlites and lamproites (igneous rocks). Placer deposits are destroyed bedrock deposits, in which mineral is transported from eroded kimberlite pipes over a distance, sometimes several kilometers.

"Lomonosovskoye" field in the Arkhangelsk region

Information about this deposit first appeared in 1985, and in 1999 it was announced in the media that preparations were underway to begin its development.

The search for the mineral in the Arkhangelsk region differed from expeditions in Siberia. In Yakutia, they tracked it using the diamond’s “satellite” - pyrope (garnet). In the Arkhangelsk region - based on magnetic anomalies.

As a result, more than 50 kimberlite pipes were identified, about a third of which contain diamonds. Six pipes in the area of ​​the Pomorye village are close to each other and form a single Lomonosovskoye deposit. Its reserves are estimated at US$12 billion. The quality of the stones is quite high, not inferior to those from Yakutia.

In 2009, a very high quality stone (transparent rhombic dodecahedron) weighing 30.61 carats was found and named in honor of the 425th anniversary of Arkhangelsk. A year later, a unique stone weighing 50.1 carats was also mined.

Extraction is carried out in two ways: quarry and mine method. The borehole hydraulic extraction method tested at the beginning of development was unsuccessful.

Diamond mining in Yakutia

The city of Mirny is considered the “diamond capital” of Russia. It is located in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) at a distance of 1200 km from Yakutsk. The population of the city is about 35 thousand people and almost 80% of the population works in the Alrosa group of diamond mining enterprises (the name consists of the words “diamonds” and “Russia”). Alrosa accounts for about 99% of all diamonds mined in Russia and more than 30% in the world.

In 2017, a volume of 39 million carats is expected. Proven reserves of the company's deposits amount to 184.8 million carats, probable reserves – 468.5 million carats.

The development of deposits in Yakutia began in the 50s of the last century. The Mir pipe has been mined by opencast mining since 1957, and for almost 50 years the serpentine road in the quarry has reached 8 km from the surface to the bottom.

The diameter of the quarry is 1200 meters and the depth is 525 meters. Since 2001, the quarry has been mothballed, and mining continues using the shaft method.

How are diamonds mined?

The peculiarities of the nature of Yakutia are, first of all, extreme weather conditions; in winter the air temperature reaches 50 degrees below zero. It should also be noted that groundwater is mineralized to such an extent that it can dissolve rubber. And finally, at a depth of 400 meters, permafrost begins.

All these conditions directly affect mining methods. The city of Mirny is located in close proximity to the quarry.

After the mined ore is brought to the surface, it is delivered to a processing plant, where the rock is first crushed, then the diamond compounds are separated.

For small fractions, a foam cleaning method is used (chemicals form foam on water, to which diamond particles stick), as well as an X-ray method (irradiating the ore and blowing diamond-containing particles out of it).

After mechanical cleaning, manual labor is used to clean and sort the stones.

The stones are sorted by weight; large specimens are selected by specialists exclusively by hand. Their shape, size and color are assessed. Transparency and purity of the mineral are also important characteristics.

It should be noted that all diamonds have such unique characteristics that experts have developed more than 8 thousand positions by which they can be evaluated.

After selection, the stones are sent to the cutting plant.

Jewelry stones make up about 70% of all mined stones, the rest are used for technical purposes.

The industrial use of diamonds is for the manufacture of stone and metal working tools, medical instruments and watches.

The global diamond mining market is represented by 9 countries, of which more than two-thirds of the volumes come from Russia, Botswana and Congo.

It is a matter of pride that Russian diamonds have high quality characteristics that are important for jewelers:

• correct shape;
• transparent;
• high color properties.

How to distinguish a diamond?

Examine a diamond in the light - a real one “allows” the ray into itself and refracts it many times, due to which it shines very brightly. No glass or cubic zirconia is capable of this, even with the most complex cut. Only a real diamond has a double refraction - one ray from its surface goes straight, the second - to the side.

You cannot see through a diamond the surface on which you place it, no matter how transparent it is. If you look at its peaks through a diamond, they should not be visible.

A fake diamond will shimmer with all the colors of the rainbow, but a real one will shimmer in only one shade - grayish. The most reliable way to check authenticity is to breathe on the diamond. The real one doesn't fog up!

Source: https://vseprokamni.ru/interesno/kak-obrazujutsja-almazy-i-gde-ih-dobyvajut.html

Ferrous metals, their properties, features and what is worth knowing

Kashtanovy lane 8/14 51100 Magdalinovka village

Nikolaenko Dmitrij

Ferrous metals, their properties, features and what is worth knowing Ferrous metals, their properties, features and what is worth knowing ( 1 vote, average: 5 out of 5)

Metals are divided into non-ferrous and ferrous. Ferrous metals , in essence, are iron that contains varying amounts of carbon, as well as different crystal lattice. Ferrous metals include steel and cast iron, which in turn have a fairly large number of main classes. In the production of cast irons and steels of various types, ferrous metals extracted from metal ores are used.

In the metal economy, ferrous metals account for more than 90%, indicating their wide distribution. The percentage of carbon determines what properties the material will acquire—cast iron or steel. To improve the quality of ferrous metal, alloying additives (other metals and alloys, as well as chemical elements) are used, which improve the properties of the alloys and give them the desired shade of characteristics depending on its application.

Common alloying additives are:

• copper;
• silicon;
• chromium;
• nickel.

Classification of ferrous metals

In most cases, the classification of ferrous metals is based on the division of elements according to their chemical composition and properties . alloying elements are determined by iron and its alloy.

In turn, a certain percentage of carbon in the alloy indicates whether it is cast iron or steel. Thus, cast iron contains more than 1.7% carbon, and steel contains from 0.2 to 1.7% carbon.

Classification of ferrous metals involves division into the following classes:

• iron metals;
• refractory;
• uranium;
• alkaline earth;
• rare earths.

Also, the classification of ferrous metals implies the separation of alloyed and unalloyed steels, which are also called carbon steels. Carbon steels include steels in which carbon is the main component, and impurities do not have much effect on the properties of the metal.

Alloyed steels have one or more alloyed elements, which have a huge impact on the properties of steel. /Alloy steels are very widely used for the manufacture of critical parts that bear heavy loads, experience different temperatures, and strong frictional effects.

The use of such steel is widespread in mechanical engineering, tractor manufacturing, heavy industry and other areas.

Types of ferrous metals

Types of ferrous metals made from steel have many uses. However, all types are different and have their own purpose and area of ​​application. Also, various types of ferrous metals , in particular steel, after undergoing heat treatment, acquire distinctive properties.

Many alloys lend themselves well to rolling, pressing, and casting successfully. Others are soft enough to be processed by hand. Such types of ferrous metals as stainless steel, having the necessary alloying elements, have very high resistance to corrosion, great hardness and strength.

This type of steel is successfully used in the food industry, medicine, for the manufacture of household items, for the production of turbines, etc. Another type of ferrous metal is cast iron. Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon and its content is higher than in steel.

Since cast iron has good casting properties, it is mainly used for cast parts. Cast iron is divided into types:

• Foundry cast iron;
• Pig iron;
• Anti-friction cast iron;
• Ductile iron;
• Low alloy cast iron;
• High alloy cast iron;
• Nodular cast iron;
• Cast iron with vermicular graphite for castings.

Foundry cast iron is used for casting; flake graphite contributes well to this. Malleable - has remarkable ductility, can be forged well, which is where the name comes from. Certain types of ferrous metal , for example, nodular graphite cast iron, due to its spherical structure, are used in the manufacture of parts of very high quality.

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Source: https://metallsmaster.ru/chernye-metally/