Encyclopedia for steel sheet
In order to buy steel sheets from METAL BUREAU always at the lowest prices, you need to go to the main menu and in Ferrous Metal click on the Steel sheets link.
You can specify your request by selecting GOST, thickness, width and steel grade of the position you need in the filter. To confirm the availability of goods of the required volume, send the details and application to our specialists.
Within 15 minutes you will receive an invoice to pay for sheet metal at the lowest prices. The next day, the rolled metal will be at your place at a pre-agreed time!
For quick access, use the links:
What is flat metal sheet
A flat metal sheet is a rolled sheet product with a cut or uncut edge.
How to calculate the weight and price of steel sheet
Metal sheet sizes:
- t—thickness of the metal sheet
- a is the width of the metal sheet
- b is the length of the metal sheet
- Calculation of the theoretical weight of 1 steel sheet:
Weight of 1 sheet (t) = t (mm) x h (mm) x a (mm) x 7.85 (kg/m3) - Calculation of the cost of 1 steel sheet:
Price of 1 sheet (RUB) = Weight of 1 sheet (kg) x Price per 1 ton (RUB): 1000 (kg) - Calculation of the weight of 1 m2 of steel sheet:
Weight of 1 m2 = Weight of 1 sheet: Area of 1 sheet (a x b) - Calculation of the price of 1 m2 of steel sheet:
Price of 1 m2 = Price of 1 sheet: Area of 1 sheet (a x b)
See the minimum prices per ton of rolled sheet metal at metal depots in Moscow and Moscow Region here: metal sheet prices.
Types and technical characteristics of rolled sheets
1. Flat steel sheets in sheets:
2. Sheet metal in rolls:
- GOST 19904-90 cold rolled coil
- GOST 14918-80 galvanized roll
3. Steel sheet with polymer coating (RAL).
For the production of steel sheets, depending on the rolling method in production, the following steel grades are used:
- Hot rolled steel sheets (GOST 19903-90):
- ordinary quality steel: 3 sp/ps, 2 ps
- low alloy steel: 09G2S, 17G1S
- structural steel: 10, 20, 35, 40Х, 45, 65Г
- Cold rolled steel sheets (GOST 19904-90):
- high-quality carbon steel, structural (08 kp/ps, 15 kp/ps, 25, 35, 45; 10 kp/ps, 20 kp/ps, 30, 40).
Factory packaging of galvanized flat and coiled sheets
Galvanized sheets are supplied from manufacturing plants in rolls or in bundles tied with metal tape.
Which factories produce sheet steel?
The main producers of steel sheets are:
- West Siberian Metallurgical Plant (ZSMK OJSC)
- Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works (OJSC MMK)
- Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant (ChelMK Mechel OJSC)
- Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant (JSC Severstal)
- Zaporozhye Metallurgical Plant (JSC Zaporizhstal)
- Ashinsky Metallurgical Plant (JSC Ashinsky Metallurgical Plant)
- Metallurgical plant "Azovstal" (OJSC MK "Azovstal")
- Novolipetsk Iron and Steel Works (JSC NLMK)
- Metalloinvest (JSC Ural Steel)
Loading norm for vehicles
Transportation with a maximum load of up to 25 tons per vehicle is possible, while 3-4 rolls of sheet steel are loaded into one trailer (length 12 meters). In terms of volume, 4-5 packs of flat sheets fit into the same transport.
Loading norm for railway transport
When transporting sheet metal by railway trains, up to 70 tons are carried in one car, where flat sheet steel is in bundles. For example, steel sheets of 1 mm and 2 mm, as well as steel sheets of 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm, can accommodate 13-14 pieces. As for steel coils, some manufacturing plants use special platforms to deliver them to metal depots in Moscow. The loading rate on such platforms is 5-6 rolls.
Where is steel sheet used?
Black or galvanized steel sheet has a wide range of applications and is used in industries such as industrial and civil construction, mechanical engineering, carriage and shipbuilding, machine tool building, and agriculture.
What is the name of sheet metal in English?
Rolled sheet bar
Source: http://metalburo.ru/list/_entsiklopediya-stalnoy-list/
Standard Sheet Metal Sizes
- 1 steel sheet 10 mm
- 2 Hot rolled and cold rolled sheet, how to choose the right sheet metal?
- 3 Steel sheet: description, characteristics, sale | Steel World Company
- 3.1 Types of steel sheets
- 3.2 Hot rolled steel sheet
- 4 Galvanized sheet - standard sizes of corrugated steel sheet
- 5 Encyclopedia for steel sheet
- 6 Weight of sheet steel - calculation methods depending on thickness and grade (95 photos)
- 7 Thicknesses of steel sheets | Articles
- 8 Thickness of steel sheets
- 9 Sheet sizes
- 10 Rolled sheets. Steel sheet GOST, weight
- 11 Weight of sheets, rolled steel sheets GOST 16523-89, GOST 14637-89
Rolled sheets are the main type of semi-finished steel products that are supplied to mechanical engineering, construction and other types of production.
Steel sheet 10 mm is hot-rolled and is a semi-finished product. It is designed for further modification.
Sheet 10 is produced by hot rolling on powerful rolling mills.
Here the metal is rolled into sheets of the required sizes from special blanks in a hot state. The assortment and dimensions of the sheet are established by GOST 19903-74.
The same document defines the accuracy standards for sheet manufacturing.
Most often, a 10 mm sheet is produced in dimensions of 10x1500x6000 mm (thickness x width x length) or 10x2000x8000 mm. In terms of dimensional accuracy, sheets can be of increased accuracy (A) and normal accuracy (B).
There are 4 groups according to the flatness of the sheet surface:
- Normal flatness (NP);
- Improved flatness (UP);
- High flatness (HF):
- Particularly high flatness (OP).
In addition, sheets are produced with cut edges (O) and uncut edges (NO).
Based on GOST 14637-89, hot-rolled sheets are made from structural steels of ordinary quality: St 2, St 3, St 5. And according to GOST 1577-93 from high-quality structural steels (10, 20, 30; 45; 60), as well as from alloyed steels (20G; 38ХА; 40Х; 50G).
Main applications of 10 mm sheet
This sheet is a semi-finished product for further processing. This means that machine parts, metal structural elements, heat exchanger lining and other parts will be made from it. The sheet is well processed by cutting, excellently stamped and bent.
Sheets made of low-carbon steel are used for the manufacture of elements of welded metal structures, as they weld well. They are used both in construction and mechanical engineering. These can be bridges and supports, hulls and foundations, bulkheads of ships and ships, frames of carriages and locomotives.
All parts, components and metal structures made of steel require protection against corrosion. These can be paint or galvanic coatings.
Sheet weight 10 mm
The weight of any sheet depends on its size. Sheet 10, the weight of which needs to be determined, is a rather heavy thing.
One square meter of this sheet weighs 78.5 kg. This means that the weight of the running sheet itself, measuring 1500x6000 mm, will weigh 706.5 kg. It is impossible to handle such a sheet without lifting equipment.
Cost of 10 mm sheet
If we consider sheet 10, its price depends on the size, the steel from which it is made and the accuracy of its manufacture.
Sellers most often quote the price per ton of weight. For example, in Moscow the average price of a 10x1500x6000 mm sheet of steel 20 of normal accuracy is 29,370 rubles per ton. Sheet weight 706.5 kg. This means that the sheet will cost 20,750 rubles. And the same sheet of 40X steel already costs 26,628 rubles.
Order a 10mm steel sheet.
In our metal service center there are the following types of sheet metal processing:— sheet cutting with a grinder;— sheet cutting with a gas cutting machine;— manual gas cutting of sheets;— sheet cutting with a guillotine;— sheet laser cutting;
— plasma cutting of sheets;
— production of embedded parts.
Source: https://steelfactoryrus.com/standartnye-razmery-listovogo-metalla/
Weight of steel sheet, table of sheet weight and thickness according to GOST
Constant improvement of the construction industry brings various new products into our everyday life, with the help of which modern builders have the opportunity to build new structures. Such innovations make it possible to invent more universal elements that find their application in mechanical engineering, the production of specific equipment and in other areas of human activity.
One of these elements is steel sheets, which act as an indispensable part in the construction of various building structures and are used in the development of modern cars and various equipment.
Steel sheets advantageously combine strength, reliability, durability and availability, which makes them very popular design elements among domestic and foreign manufacturing companies.
In more detail, the advantages of steel sheet allow it to be used for:
- construction of welded structures;
- creating hulls for cars or watercraft;
- production of equipment resistant to chemicals and elevated temperatures;
- production of agricultural and industrial machinery.
By the way, the weight of such a sheet is as acceptable as possible, which makes it available for delivery to any facility - customers can place an order for a large batch of steel sheet that will fit even in a not very spacious car.
Due to the specifics of the sheet, including weight, each individual element fits comfortably on top of the other, which ensures the most compact packaging, which has a positive effect on maintaining the integrity of the sheets during transportation.
Variety of steel sheet
In practice, with the use of modern equipment and a team of experienced professionals, steel products can be manufactured in a wide variety of designs, which allows company clients to implement almost any design solution! Consumers are offered products in the following versions:
- with a corrugated surface (used in the installation of production sites, for the production of high-quality comfortable stairs and other structures where it is necessary to minimize the possibility of sliding on the surface);
- with a corrugated surface (such sheets are mounted as a roofing surface; there is additional treatment with zinc or polyester to increase the original technical characteristics, including reducing the weight of such sheets);
- with a perforated surface (the structural element is produced for the purpose of using it to create unique designer interiors);
- with a cut surface (coated with polymer materials and used for technical purposes);
- stamped sheet (designed for processing external walls of buildings).
As you can see, multifunctional steel sheets can be used for a variety of purposes, the specifics of which are significantly different. Customers only need to indicate their requirements to manufacturers, who are ready to produce high-quality steel elements with specific features.
Weight of steel sheets
Do not forget that the less mass a component has, the easier and more profitable it is to use it to implement your projects. The weight of the steel sheet makes it stand out among other similar products. Detailed data on the mass of products (sheet weight and thickness) can be found in the table below:
Rolled sheet metal according to GOST | |||||||
thickness of steel sheet, mm | sheet weight, kg/m2 | thickness, mm | sheet weight, kg/m2 | thickness, mm | sheet weight, kg/m2 | thickness, mm | sheet weight, kg/m2 |
0,5 | 3,925 | 1,4 | 10,99 | 6 | 47,1 | 18 | 141,3 |
0,55 | 4,32 | 1,5 | 11,77 | 7 | 54,95 | 20 | 157 |
0,6 | 4,71 | 1,8 | 14,13 | 8 | 62,8 | 22 | 172,7 |
0,7 | 5,5 | 2 | 15,7 | 9 | 70,65 | 25 | 196,25 |
0,8 | 6,28 | 2,5 | 19,62 | 10 | 78,5 | 30 | 235,5 |
0,9 | 7,06 | 3 | 23,55 | 12 | 94,2 | 40 | 314 |
1 | 7,85 | 4 | 31,4 | 14 | 109,9 | 50 | 392,5 |
1,2 | 9,42 | 5 | 39,25 | 16 | 125,6 | 60 | 471 |
Of course, for a more detailed calculation of the quantity of required products and the dimensions of each individual unit, including the weight of the steel sheet, the process will require the involvement of qualified construction specialists who can analyze the specifics of the project and advise customers how much material is required to implement the plan, taking into account the weight of the sheet.
Competent assistance from our company employees
The Moskomplekt company specializes in construction and renovation work, so from us you can always get professional assistance in implementing the most daring decisions for the construction of original buildings and the creation of exclusive products.
Competent craftsmen are ready to complete work of any complexity in the shortest possible time or provide you with any quantity of high-quality sheet, the weight of which will allow it to be easily transported throughout the country, so you don’t have to worry about the reliability and speed of completing the task - taking care of the interests of clients is our priority.
Prices for rolled steel elements, depending on the specifics of the sheet, including weight, are presented in this table:
Hot rolled steel sheet
Sheet thickness | Sheet sizes | Unit | Cost in rubles |
1.5 mm | 1.5*1250*2500 | PC. | 2011 |
2 mm | 2*1250x*2500 | PC. | 2441 |
2.5 mm | 2.5*1250*2500 | PC. | 3038 |
3 mm | 3*1250*2500 | PC. | 3625 |
4 mm | 4*1500*3000 | PC. | 6700 |
4 mm | 4*1500*6000 | PC. | 12943 |
5 mm | 5*1500*3000 | PC. | 8196 |
5 mm | 5*1500*6000 | PC. | 16420 |
6 mm | 6*1500*3000 | PC. | 10228 |
6 mm | 6*1500*6000 | PC. | 20048 |
8 mm | 8*1500*6000 | PC. | 26005 |
10 mm | 10*1500*6000 | PC. | 32460 |
12 mm | 12*1500*6000 | PC. | 40416 |
Hot rolled steel sheet
Sheet thickness | Sheet sizes | Unit | Cost in rubles |
1.5 mm | 1.5*1250*2500 | m2 | 643 |
2 mm | 2*1250x*2500 | m2 | 780 |
2.5 mm | 2.5*1250*2500 | m2 | 970 |
3 mm | 3*1250*2500 | m2 | 1160 |
4 mm | 4*1500*3000 | m2 | 1500 |
4 mm | 4*1500*6000 | m2 | 1430 |
5 mm | 5*1500*3000 | m2 | 1820 |
5 mm | 5*1500*6000 | m2 | 1830 |
6 mm | 6*1500*3000 | m2 | 2270 |
6 mm | 6*1500*6000 | m2 | 2230 |
8 mm | 8*1500*6000 | m2 | 2900 |
10 mm | 10*1500*6000 | m2 | 3600 |
12 mm | 12*1500*6000 | m2 | 4500 |
You can obtain all other information on the weight of the sheets and other features of the products during a telephone consultation with the managers of our organization.
Source: http://moskomplekt.ru/ves-lista-stalnogo/
Sheet metal weight in tables
Knowing the exact weight of sheet metal will allow you to avoid problems with an irresponsible supplier. It will help to preliminary estimate the amount of financial costs for a new project. Understand what load will put pressure on the metal structure being developed. As in any business, there are nuances here, so let’s not “go from side to side” and begin to study this issue.
General concepts
Before proceeding directly to calculating the weight, we need to understand what sheet metal is. A metal sheet is a rectangular profile, the thickness of which is disproportionately small compared to its length and width. Its parameters and dimensions are regulated by GOST 19903-2015 and GOST 19904-2015.
According to these state standards, sheet profiles are divided into the following categories:
- According to the production method.
- In terms of manufacturing accuracy.
- According to the level of surface flatness.
- By edge type.
- By type of material.
Let us now examine each point in more detail.
Production methods
Metal sheets are made by hot or cold rolling. These technologies involve rolling rollers onto a workpiece, as a result of which its surface is rolled out.
In general, the procedure for hot and cold rolling is similar. Only in the first case is the workpiece preheated to a temperature of 300-400 ºC. This is done in order to increase the malleability of the metal, which makes it possible to obtain sheets of greater thickness.
According to manufacturing accuracy
Depending on the purpose in production, the sheet can be manufactured with two degrees of accuracy: normal (B) and increased (A). High-precision rolled products have a more regular surface shape. For this reason, such a sheet has better strength and surface roughness.
By flatness
Flatness characterizes the parallelism of the faces to each other. As with shape accuracy, its value greatly influences the sheet's resistance to mechanical load.
There are sheets of especially high (PO), high (PV), improved (PU) and normal flatness (PN).
By edge type
The edge type characterizes the shape of the rolled edges. There are two varieties: edged (O) and unedged (NO). The first type requires additional surgery, which makes it more expensive. But at the same time, such a sheet is more convenient to use.
Weight calculation
The weight of a sheet profile is calculated in two ways:
- Using formula.
- Using ready-made tables.
The first method represents the following relationship between geometric and physical quantities:
Sheet weight (kg) = length (m)*width (m)*thickness (m)*material density (7850 kg\m3 for steel)
Weight tables are even easier to use than the above method. Correlate the thickness and material of the sheet and get a mass value of 1 m2. Multiply this number by the area of the desired sheet and get its weight.
Theoretical Sheet Metal Weight Table
Cold rolled sheet GOST steel 08ps/kp | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Cold-stained sheet 0.5 | 3,925 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.6 | 4,71 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.7 | 5,5 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.8 | 6,28 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.9 | 7,06 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.0 | 7,85 |
Sheet cold-stained 1.2 | 9,42 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.4 | 10,99 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.5 | 11,77 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.8 | 14,13 |
Cold-smoked sheet 2.0 | 15,7 |
Cold-stained sheet 2.5 | 19,62 |
Cold-smoked sheet 3.0 | 23,5 |
Cold-stained sheet 3.5 | 27,47 |
Hot rolled sheet GOST steel st3sp/ps5 | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Hot rolled sheet 1.5 | 11,77 |
Hot rolled sheet 2.0 | 15,7 |
Hot rolled sheet 2.5 | 19,62 |
Hot rolled sheet 3.0 | 23,5 |
Hot rolled sheet 4.0 | 31,4 |
Hot rolled sheet 5.0 | 39,25 |
Hot rolled sheet 6.0 | 47,1 |
Hot rolled sheet 8.0 | 62,8 |
Hot rolled sheet 10.0 | 78,5 |
Hot rolled sheet 12.0 | 94,2 |
Hot rolled sheet 14.0 | 109,9 |
Hot rolled sheet 16.0 | 125,6 |
Hot rolled sheet 18.0 | 141,3 |
Hot rolled sheet 20.0 | 157 |
Galvanized sheet GOST steel 08ps/kp | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Sheet ots. 0.4 | 3,34 |
Sheet ots. 0.45 | 3,73 |
Sheet ots. 0.5 | 4,13 |
Sheet ots. 0.55 | 4,52 |
Sheet ots. 0.6 | 4,91 |
Sheet ots. 0.7 | 5,70 |
Sheet ots. 0.75 | 6,09 |
Sheet ots. 0.8 | 6,48 |
Sheet ots. 0.9 | 7,27 |
Sheet ots. 1.0 | 8,05 |
Sheet ots. 1.2 | 9,62 |
Sheet ots. 1.5 | 11,97 |
Sheet ots. 2.0 | 15,9 |
Sheet ots. 2.5 | 19,82 |
Lentil corrugated sheet GOST steel st3sp/ps5 | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Lentil leaf 3.0 | 24,5 |
Lentil leaf 4.0 | 32,2 |
Lentil leaf 5.0 | 40,5 |
Lentil leaf 6.0 | 48,5 |
Lentil leaf 0.8 | 64,9 |
Lentil leaf 10 | 80,9 |
Lentil leaf 12 | 96,8 |
Corrugated rhombic sheet GOST steel st3sp/ps5 | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Rhombic leaf 3.0 | 25,1 |
Rhombic leaf 4.0 | 33,5 |
Rhombic leaf 5.0 | 41,8 |
Rhombic leaf 6.0 | 50 |
Rhombic leaf 8.0 | 66 |
Rhombic leaf 10 | 83 |
Rhombic leaf 12 | 99,3 |
Source: https://prompriem.ru/stati/ves-listovogo-metalla.html
Sheet metal weight
\Sheet metal weight
Cold rolled sheet GOST steel 08ps/kp | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Cold-stained sheet 0.5 | 3,925 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.6 | 4,71 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.7 | 5,5 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.8 | 6,28 |
Cold-stained sheet 0.9 | 7,06 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.0 | 7,85 |
Sheet cold-stained 1.2 | 9,42 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.4 | 10,99 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.5 | 11,77 |
Cold-stained sheet 1.8 | 14,13 |
Cold-smoked sheet 2.0 | 15,7 |
Cold-stained sheet 2.5 | 19,62 |
Cold-smoked sheet 3.0 | 23,5 |
Cold-stained sheet 3.5 | 27,47 |
Sheet metal weight
Hot rolled sheet GOST steel st3sp/ps5 | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Hot rolled sheet 1.5 | 11,77 |
Hot rolled sheet 2.0 | 15,7 |
Hot rolled sheet 2.5 | 19,62 |
Hot rolled sheet 3.0 | 23,5 |
Hot rolled sheet 4.0 | 31,4 |
Hot rolled sheet 5.0 | 39,25 |
Hot rolled sheet 6.0 | 47,1 |
Hot rolled sheet 8.0 | 62,8 |
Hot rolled sheet 10.0 | 78,5 |
Hot rolled sheet 12.0 | 94,2 |
Hot rolled sheet 14.0 | 109,9 |
Hot rolled sheet 16.0 | 125,6 |
Hot rolled sheet 18.0 | 141,3 |
Hot rolled sheet 20.0 | 157 |
Galvanized sheet GOST steel 08ps/kp | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Sheet ots. 0.4 | 3,34 |
Sheet ots. 0.45 | 3,73 |
Sheet ots. 0.5 | 4,13 |
Sheet ots. 0.55 | 4,52 |
Sheet ots. 0.6 | 4,91 |
Sheet ots. 0.7 | 5,70 |
Sheet ots. 0.75 | 6,09 |
Sheet ots. 0.8 | 6,48 |
Sheet ots. 0.9 | 7,27 |
Sheet ots. 1.0 | 8,05 |
Sheet ots. 1.2 | 9,62 |
Sheet ots. 1.5 | 11,97 |
Sheet ots. 2.0 | 15,9 |
Sheet ots. 2.5 | 19,82 |
Lentil corrugated sheet metal weight
Lentil corrugated sheet GOST steel st3sp/ps5 | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Lentil leaf 3.0 | 24,5 |
Lentil leaf 4.0 | 32,2 |
Lentil leaf 5.0 | 40,5 |
Lentil leaf 6.0 | 48,5 |
Lentil leaf 0.8 | 64,9 |
Lentil leaf 10 | 80,9 |
Lentil leaf 12 | 96,8 |
Rhombus corrugated sheet metal weight
Corrugated rhombic sheet GOST steel st3sp/ps5 | Weight of one meter square m2 (kg) |
Rhombic leaf 3.0 | 25,1 |
Rhombic leaf 4.0 | 33,5 |
Rhombic leaf 5.0 | 41,8 |
Rhombic leaf 6.0 | 50 |
Rhombic leaf 8.0 | 66 |
Rhombic leaf 10 | 83 |
Rhombic leaf 12 | 99,3 |
Source: https://taynik.kz/ves-listovogo-metalla
Formula and table for calculating the weight of rolled metal
Rolled steel is manufactured according to the parameters established by state standards. It is used in various areas of industry in the manufacture of metal structures and various products for construction. It is measured in kilograms, linear meters. The weight of rolled metal products must be calculated in advance so that there are no problems with product delivery.
Rolled steel products
- Types of rolled metal
- Rolled metal weight
Types of rolled metal
All metal can be divided into two large groups:
- Varietal - simple, shaped products. These include circles, corners, squares, channels, rails.
- Sheet - hot-rolled, cold-rolled sheets. These include rolls, strips, and sheet metal of different thicknesses.
The reduced range of rolled metal products is based on parameters that indicate how to properly manufacture certain metal products, how much they should weigh, and what length they should be.
The most popular types of rolled metal include:
- Corrugated sheets are metal sheets of small thickness that have stiffening ribs. It can be roofing, wall, load-bearing.
- Steel sheets are metal plates of varying thickness.
- Channels are profiles that have a U-shape. They are used in various areas of industry.
- Pipes are hollow rolled. They are used to make pipelines through which gases and various liquids will pass.
- Reinforcement - used for reinforcing reinforced concrete products. The surface can be ridged or smooth.
Black
List of ferrous metal assortments:
- Steel circles. Measured length - 6 m. Dimensions - from 10 to 280 mm.
- Hot rolled strip. Thickness – 3–14 mm, dimensions – 20–150 mm.
- Hot rolled hexagon. GOST 2879-88.
- I-beam hot-rolled. Typical sizes from 10 to 70mm.
- Steel wire rod. GOST 30136-94.
- Hot rolled channel. GOST 8278-83.
Separate groups include products related to sheet and pipe products.
Color
Assortment of non-ferrous metal products according to state standards:
- Copper rods. GOST 1535-91.
- Brass wire. GOST 1066-90.
- Copper-zinc alloys that were processed by pressure. GOST 15527-04.
- High purity lead. GOST 22861-93.
- Lead sheets. GOST 9559-89.
- Copper pipes. GOST 617-90.
State documents indicate the running dimensions of products made of non-ferrous metals, the weight depending on the dimensions, and production technology.
Copper complete pipes
Rolled metal weight
The theoretical weight of rolled metal is indicated in special reference books on metalworking. In order not to use additional literature, you can calculate the theoretical weight using formulas or look at rolled metal tables.
Calculation formulas
To use the formulas, you need to know the dimensions of rolled metal and other quantities. On the websites you can find online calculators for making calculations.
Calculation of rolled metal weight:
m=?*(ds)*s*?/1000
Explanation:
- M—theoretical mass.
- ? — 3.14. Is a constant value.
- D is the outer diameter, measured in mm.
- S—wall thickness in mm.
- N - 1000/m.
- ? — density, measured in g/cm3.
Calculation of the weight of one metal sheet in a ton:
m=V*?/10
Explanation:
- M is the theoretical mass of the sheet, measured in kg.
- V - designation of sheet volume.
- ? — density, measured in g/cm3.
Calculation of theoretical mass for one linear meter from a round coil:
m=x*d2*?/4000
Explanation:
- M is the theoretical mass of 1 p/m of the circle, measured in kg.
- X - 3.14.
- D - outer diameter in mm,
- P - density, measured in g/cm3,
How to calculate the weight of a metal sheet based on its overall dimensions and thickness Using these formulas, you can calculate the weight of a certain amount of rolled metal. To clarify the parameters, you can use special tables that are present in reference books on metalworking. Table for calculating the weight of rolled metal Formula and table for calculating the weight of rolled metal Link to the main publication
Source: https://metalloy.ru/stal/ves-metalloprokata
Steel sheet assortment
Sheet steel is a type of rolled metal produced by hot rolling in rolling mills. It can be used as an independent metal product and as a rolling stock for cold-rolled sheets, production of bent profiles, and pipes. In its production, carbon unalloyed and alloyed steel grades are used.
Range of hot rolled steel sheets
The range of hot-rolled sheet products is regulated by GOST 19903-2015. In accordance with the standard, rolled products are produced in sheets (thickness 0.4-160 mm) or rolls (thickness up to 25 mm). The width of sheets is 500-4400 mm, rolls are 500-2200 mm. Manufacturing accuracy in thickness - increased and normal. Flatness – especially high, high, increased, normal.
This is the most common and popular type of rolled steel in the national economy. It is used in construction, shipbuilding, bridge construction, automobile and aircraft construction, and in the production of locomotive frames.
Table of sheet assortment and weight of hot-rolled steel in accordance with GOST 19903-2015
Sheet thickness, mm | Sheet dimensions, m x m | Weight 1 m2, kg | Sheet weight, kg |
1,5 | 1.25x2.5 | 11,78 | 36,8 |
2,0 | 1.25x2.5 | 15,7 | 49,06 |
3,0 | 1.25x2.5 | 23,55 | 73,59 |
4,0 | 1.5x6 | 31,4 | 282,6 |
5,0 | 1.5x3 | 39,25 | 176,62 |
5,0 | 1.5x6 | 39,25 | 353,25 |
6,0 | 1.5x6 | 47,1 | 423,9 |
8,0 | 1.5x6 | 62,8 | 565,2 |
10,0 | 1.5x6 | 78,5 | 706,5 |
12,0 | 1.5x6 | 94,2 | 847,8 |
14,0 | 1.5x6 | 109,9 | 989,1 |
14,0 | 2x6 | 109,9 | 1318,8 |
16,0 | 1.5x6 | 125,6 | 1130,4 |
16,0 | 2x6 | 125,6 | 1507,2 |
18,0 | 2x6 | 141,3 | 1271,7 |
20,0 | 2x6 | 157,0 | 1884,0 |
22,0 | 2x6 | 172,7 | 2072,4 |
25,0 | 2x6 | 196,25 | 2652,0 |
30,0 | 2x6 | 235,5 | 2826,0 |
32,0 | 2x6 | 251,2 | 3014,4 |
36,0 | 2x6 | 282,6 | 3391,2 |
40,0 | 2x6 | 314,0 | 3768,0 |
50,0 | 2x6 | 392,5 | 4710,0 |
Range of cold rolled steel sheets
The production of these metal products is regulated by GOSTs 19904-90, 9045-93, 16523-97. Thickness – up to 5.0 mm. Width – 500-2350 mm. Manufacturing accuracy in thickness - high, increased, normal. Flatness – especially high, high, improved, normal.
General-purpose products are made from high-quality carbon steels, and for certain applications - from low-alloy or alloy steels. Such products are characterized by high dimensional accuracy and surface quality, as well as a hardened top layer.
To eliminate work hardening and obtain a fine-grained structure in the surface layer, recrystallization annealing is used.
Cold-rolled sheets are used in the production of profiled sheets, in the automotive industry, in the manufacture of dishes coated with enamel, and containers for canned food products.
Table of dimensions and weight of cold rolled steel sheets
Sheet thickness, mm | Sheet dimensions, m x m | Weight 1 m2, kg | Sheet weight, kg |
0,7 | 1.25x2.5 | 5,5 | 17,17 |
0,8 | 1.25x2.5 | 6,28 | 19,63 |
1,0 | 1.25x2.5 | 7,85 | 24,53 |
1,2 | 1.25x2.5 | 9,42 | 29,44 |
1,5 | 1.25x2.5 | 11,78 | 36,8 |
2,0 | 1.25x2.5 | 15,7 | 49,06 |
2,5 | 1.25x2.5 | 19,63 | 61,33 |
3,0 | 1.25x2.5 | 23,55 | 73,59 |
Main characteristics of galvanized sheet
Galvanized sheets are produced by applying a zinc layer to cold-rolled coils or sheets, which protects the base metal from corrosive destruction. The most common methods of galvanizing in industrial conditions are hot and electrolytic. The main application of such a sheet is the production of corrugated sheets. It is also used for the manufacture of technological equipment, household appliances, and in the furniture industry.
Sheet thickness, mm | Weight 1 m2, kg | Sheet thickness, mm | Weight 1 m2, kg |
0,45 | 3,73 | 1,2 | 9,62 |
0,5 | 4,13 | 1,5 | 11,98 |
0,55 | 4,52 | 2,0 | 15,9 |
0,7 | 5,7 | 2,5 | 19,83 |
0,8 | 6,48 | 3,0 | 23,75 |
1,0 | 8,05 |
Galvanized corrugated sheeting: characteristics and areas of application
Profiled sheet is a metal product obtained by profiling cold-rolled galvanized sheets with a thickness of 0.4-1.0 mm on special bending mills. Various grades of this material are used for wall coverings, fencing, and roofing.
Table of sizes and weights of profiled sheets of various brands
Brand | Thickness, mm | Width, mm | Weight of 1 linear meter, kg |
C8 | 0,5 | 1150 | 5,4 |
C8 | 0,55 | 1150 | 5,9 |
C8 | 0,6 | 1150 | 6,3 |
C8 | 0,7 | 1150 | 7,4 |
S21 | 0,55 | 1000 | 5,4 |
S21 | 0,7 | 1000 | 5,9 |
S21 | 0,8 | 1000 | 6,3 |
S21 | 0,9 | 1000 | 7,4 |
NS35 | 0,5 | 1000 | 5,4 |
NS35 | 0,55 | 1000 | 5,9 |
NS35 | 0,7 | 1000 | 6,3 |
NS35 | 0,8 | 1000 | 7,4 |
H57 | 0,6 | 750 | 5,6 |
H57 | 0,7 | 750 | 6,5 |
H57 | 0,8 | 750 | 7,49 |
H75 | 0,6 | 750 | 6,3 |
H75 | 0,7 | 750 | 7,4 |
H75 | 0,8 | 750 | 8,4 |
H75 | 0,9 | 750 | 9,3 |
H75 | 1,0 | 750 | 10,3 |
H114 | 0,7 | 600 | 7,35 |
H114 | 0,8 | 600 | 8,4 |
H114 | 0,9 | 600 | 9,3 |
H114 | 1,0 | 600 | 10,3 |
H114 | 0,8 | 750 | 10,5 |
H114 | 0,9 | 750 | 11,62 |
H114 | 1,0 | 750 | 12,88 |
Metal profiled sheet with polymer coating: range and main characteristics
To increase the corrosion resistance and decorative characteristics of galvanized corrugated sheeting, it is coated on one or both sides with a colored polymer layer. Depending on the brand, these products are used for façade cladding, fencing, and as roofing material. Thanks to the wide range of colors, corrugated sheeting can be selected in accordance with the overall color scheme of the building or the surrounding landscape.
Table of dimensions and weight of polymer-coated corrugated sheets
Brand | Thickness, mm | Width, mm | Weight of 1 linear meter, kg |
C8 | 0,5 | 1150 | 5,4 |
C8 | 0,6 | 1150 | 6,3 |
C8 | 0,7 | 1150 | 7,4 |
S21 | 0,5 | 1000 | 4,9 |
S21 | 0,7 | 1000 | 5,9 |
S21 | 0,8 | 1000 | 6,3 |
C44 | 0,7 | 1000 | 6,3 |
C44 | 0,8 | 1000 | 7,4 |
NS35 | 0,5 | 1000 | 5,4 |
NS35 | 0,7 | 1000 | 6,3 |
NS35 | 0,8 | 1000 | 7,4 |
NS 44 | 0,7 | 1000 | 6,3 |
NS44 | 0,8 | 1000 | 7,4 |
H57 | 0,7 | 750 | 6,5 |
H57 | 0,8 | 750 | 7,49 |
H60 | 0,7 | 845 | 7,4 |
H60 | 0,8 | 845 | 8,4 |
Corrugated sheet: types and characteristics
Corrugated steel sheet is a popular building material that has a smooth surface on one side and a corrugated surface on the other. The thickness of the main sheet is 2.5-12.0 mm. Produced in accordance with GOST 8568. Products are sold in sheets or rolls. Width – 600-2200 mm. The height of the protrusions is up to 30% of the thickness of the main sheet, but not less than 0.5 mm.
Due to its anti-slip characteristics, corrugated steel sheet is used in the manufacture of steps of stairs, ramps, passages, floors of elevators, cars, and change houses.
Thickness of the main sheet, mm, type of corrugation | Sheet size, m x m | Weight 1 m2, kg | Sheet weight, kg |
3, "lentils" | 1.5x6 | 24,2 | 217,8 |
4, "diamond" | 1.5x6 | 33,5 | 301,5 |
4, "lentils" | 1.5x6 | 32,2 | 289,8 |
5, "diamond" | 1.5x6 | 41,8 | 376,2 |
5, "lentils" | 1.5x6 | 40,5 | 364,5 |
6, "diamond" | 1.5x6 | 50,1 | 450,9 |
6, "lentils" | 1.5x6 | 48,5 | 436,5 |
8, "lentils" | 1.5x6 | 64,9 | 584,1 |
Expanded metal sheet: characteristics and applications
Lightweight metal sheet with cells is made from rolled hot-rolled or cold-rolled steel in accordance with GOST 8706. Perforations can have different shapes. The cells are arranged in a checkerboard pattern at the same distance from each other. Expanded metal sheet (PVL) is used in the construction of fences, for the manufacture of bridges, passages, enclosures, sieves, and gratings for equipment.
Table of dimensions and weight of PVL
Brand PVL | Sheet size, m x m | Weight 1 m2, kg | Sheet weight, kg |
406 | 1x3 | 15,7 | 47,1 |
506 | 1x3 | 16,4 | 49,2 |
508 | 1x2.4 | 20,9 | 50,16 |
508 | 1x2.6 | 20,9 | 54,34 |
508 | 1.2x2.55 | 20,9 | 63,95 |
510 | 1.2x2.07 | 24,7 | 61,35 |
Source: https://TreydMetall.ru/info/sortament-stalnogo-lista
Steel sheet Tyumen, sale of steel sheet in Tyumen
GOST sheets of this kind apply to hot-rolled steel, its width is more than 500 mm. Hot rolled sheet is a rolled metal sheet made of carbon steel of high or ordinary quality. Hot-rolled steel sheet is applicable for: - the production of welded pipes, - metal profiles, - metal structures and much more.
Due to its high strength and long service life, it is in demand in shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, etc.
steel sheet
GOST 19904-90
The steel sheet of this GOST is produced by pressure processing of ductile metal. Thin sheets are processed mainly in rolls by cold rolling. In production, cold-rolled sheets can be of two types: - rolls with unedged or trimmed edges, - sheets with trimmed edges. These steel sheets are needed: - construction; — mechanical engineering; — electric power industry.
It is also necessary for cold stamping and in the production of products with a high-quality surface.
Galvanized steel sheet
To produce galvanized sheets, cold-rolled carbon steel is used and it is processed by galvanizing. Thus, it is protected from all kinds of external harmful influences - rain, damage from moisture, corrosion. Galvanized sheet is highly durable and easy to form. It is used for the production of corrugated sheets. And corrugated sheeting is used for: - fences; - roofs; - facades and fences.
It has a presentable appearance, thanks to the varied color palette.
steel sheet
GOST 8568-77
This standard steel sheet is produced with certain patterns. These are either diamonds or corrugated lentils. Based on what the sheet is intended for, they can be of different measured lengths - multiple, unmeasured, with a remainder or abundance. These products are rolled into rolls or produced in sheets. They are used for: - interiors (decorations for them); — manufacturing steps (staircases or escalators); — fences and partitions;
— floorings.
Expanded steel sheet
This rolled metal product is produced by drawing and simultaneously perforating a steel sheet. The steel used here is mainly stainless, low-carbon or galvanized. Expanded metal sheets are distinguished by their cells; there are mainly two types – scales or diamonds. It does not deform and does not retain fuel oil, snow or dirt. It is used for the manufacture of: - flooring (for flight stairs); — bridges; — steel structures;
- during road construction (for fencing).
Source: http://snab-metall.ru/tyumen/list.html
Types and methods of stamping sheet metal products with your own hands - what is it, types of equipment
12Nov
articles
To avoid long processes of cutting, bending, etc., which can be used to give a metal sheet the required shape, a new method is used using a press and knives arranged in a certain way. In this article we will talk about stamping of metal products: what it is, what types and methods exist.
History of the process
Initially, everything was done by hand. The first mechanical operations using machines in the metalworking industry began in the mid-19th century. The machines have improved the quality of material processing. Another 50 years later, stamping was used for the first time in the automotive industry - the production of elegant bodies with rounded elements began.
Already in the 1930s, the same technology began to be used in aircraft and shipbuilding, and after another two decades, the production of spare parts for rockets began. The method has gained wide popularity, and is now used to create elements of completely different sizes - from an airplane wing to a small clock hand.
Sheet metal stamping technology
The starting material is a metal sheet, tape or any flat shape. Then it will be subjected to hot or cold processing (we will talk about their differences below), but with any method, the source material acquires additional properties and strength increases.
The essence of the process is the impact of foreign objects on the formation in order to achieve its deformation or separation of a part, that is, a cut. Often these two procedures occur together. The tools that come into contact with the workpiece are selected, then the press operates. He is the main force exerting pressure.
Technological operations
During operation, the machine can perform the following actions:
- Segment. The two parts are separated along a curve or straight line.
- Notching. Only notches and slits are made, but the overall integrity is not violated.
- Trimming. The procedure usually occurs with the edges of the sheet, they detach and go into the trash.
- Punching. Perforation occurs with several or one hole at once, a pattern appears.
- Felling. A closed contour appears from inside the workpiece. A whole fragment is removed along it, without disturbing the fact that the entire part remains closed.
- Cleaning up. Decorative element, corrects unevenness, smoothes ends.
- Piercing. Cones appear on the surface, that is, breakthroughs, but without cutting off any metal layer.
Types of stamping of sheet metal parts
All metal products subjected to stamping have a small width, since it is difficult to bend an excessively dense sheet. But depending on its strength, different approaches are used. Let's look at the features.
Cold stamping
The workpiece is processed without preheating. The method is inexpensive and less labor-intensive, as it is a one-step process. Only thin surfaces are processed this way. Procedure steps:
- Increasing the density of steel using a press. This way the material becomes less plastic and more resistant to external influences. The shape remains with the product for a long time.
- Processing through high temperature processing - 550-620 degrees is maintained in the oven. This leads to the destruction of the chemical crystal lattice and the filling of the structure with additional carbon atoms.
- The workpiece is transferred to the workshop for cold metal stamping. Here metal molds are used for long-term use. The dies for them are made of very durable alloys that remain accurate after a long period of use.
Features of cold stamping
It does not happen at home, but exclusively in workshops. Moreover, the advantage is the ability for employees to be in the room while the equipment is operating, because they are not present in an area with high temperatures. The very moment when a stamp is applied using a press takes no more than a few seconds, the mechanism is activated automatically. This option is suitable for:
- alloyed, carbon steels;
- aluminum;
- copper;
- some alloys.
Also, a similar method is used to create products from:
- cardboard;
- skin;
- polymer clay;
- rubber.
Equipment adjustment (weight of the press, steel for knives) will be carried out based on the calculation of the properties of the material.
Hot metal stamping process
It is used to process denser workpieces. They bend and are stamped due to the breaking of bonds between the molecules (they are at a greater distance).
The whole procedure has similar preparatory stages as the cold variety, that is, pressing and processing in ovens, hardening. But already at the third step, more modern and complex equipment is required. Here the press is combined with a heating element.
The metal initially reaches a red incandescent state. And this is how the main work happens. Peculiarities:
- Automation of the process - people should not stand behind the machines, this is all the more important since it is impossible to work in such an air temperature.
- You must first set the material parameters on the computer.
- The steel for the dies themselves is only alloyed, high-strength.
If automatic heating is not used, then the process is similar, but in two steps - first heating and then stamping. Then there must be a worker in the workshop who uses tongs (for small products as an example) to transfer the workpiece from one place to another. This is a very difficult job, which is why many large enterprises are switching to expensive automation.
After hot metal stamping, no special cooling (water or cold air) is required. The temperature returns to normal depending on the mass and density of the steel. Only after complete cooling can grinding, galvanizing, painting or other finishing work be carried out.
Liquid stamping
The second name, injection molding, is not used very often, since it is expensive and also technologically difficult. But to obtain very durable products, without creases and possible inaccuracies, this particular method is used. It involves melting a metal alloy and then pouring it into a special stamping mold. After cooling, repeated stamping may occur, but as a final feature.
Separation stamping
In fact, this is cutting, punching and cutting. That is, here the material does not bend, but only the excess part is cut off from it. Various patterns and geometric shapes can be produced.
This can be either the primary processing of the workpiece, and then the formation of volumes will occur, or the only step necessary for the finished product.
Cutting is performed using special tools - knives made of high-strength and well-sharpened steel. The procedure can be either straight or curved. Apply:
- guillotine shears;
- vibration machines;
- disks.
This procedure can also be called cutting, a term used by tailors who cut prepared fabric in similar ways.
Selection of presses and equipment for stamping metal products
Basically, two factors are taken into account - the type of work, that is, what needs to be done with the sheet - bend, punch. The second is what material is used, its properties - density, degree of intermolecular bonds. Calculations are made in accordance with the standards prescribed in GOSTs. Hydraulic or crank pressing can be used, and the stroke width of the slider and washer depends on the difficulty of the action. For example, for knocking out it is small, for drawing it is wider.
Equipment according to GOST
There are the following types of machines:
- single crank;
- double crank;
- four-crank.
In any version, they are equipped with a steel matrix and a slider, which is connected to a stamp. The movement begins due to an electric motor, which contains elements of a kinematic chain. To free the worker's hands, the launch is done with the foot; there is a pedal at the bottom, which is connected to the rotation clutch. Next, the force is transferred to all moving elements, the process of metal stamping begins, as you understand, you cannot make such a technologically difficult machine with your own hands.
For complex products
The structure described above is suitable for the most basic workpieces. If the shape has a more complex configuration, a pneumatic press with two or three sliders is used. This is required for more durable fixation of the sheet, as well as for controlling several matrices at once. If the material is very strong and no press can “take” it, then they use an innovative development - an explosion. Its strength helps to penetrate even the strongest alloys.
Sheet stamping
The simplest procedures, they do not involve bending. The cold method is usually used. The peculiarity is high accuracy, down to fractions of a millimeter. Such products are used in virtually all branches of mechanical engineering, which is why there are a lot of factories and machines of this type.
Volumetric
The difference is that the resulting elements are spherical and curved. From small construction corners (it’s hard to imagine construction and repairs without these fasteners) to large car doors. Both cold and hot methods can be used here.
Open and closed stamps
Everything is simple here. The first are those that allow people to see the process and also allow the metal layer to come out, creating a hard-to-clean layer. The second ones are closed. They are more accurate, but they require accurate calculations so that the quantity of workpiece corresponds to the required indicators.
Alternative Methods
Instead of this procedure, use:
- forging on fire;
- magnetic pulse effect on the physical properties of the material;
- electrohydraulic approach;
- isothermal subtype of hot stamping;
- rolling with a shaft.
To conclude the article, we will talk about the advantages of the method.
Advantages
- You can make virtually any shape.
- The consumption of metal sheets is reduced.
- There is no loss of mechanical characteristics of the product.
- Can be used in both large-scale and small-scale production.
- High speed.
- The versatility of the machines.
We talked about metal stamping. If you are engaged in metalworking, you can order high-quality equipment from the Rosta company.
To clarify the information you are interested in, contact our managers by phone 8 (908) 135-59-82; (473) 239-65-79; 8 (800) 707-53-38. They will answer all your questions.
Source: http://rocta.ru/info/shtampovka-metalla-vidy-tekhnologiya-process-i-standarty/
Brass sheet 10x600x1500 mm L63T GOST 931 – KMI Company, LLP
Product from the manufacturer
In stock
Wholesale:
- 491.51 KGS/kg – from 10000 kg
- Spot,
- Cashless,
- Visa/Mastercard
- Details
- Pickup,
- Courier,
- Transport company
- Details
Specifications
- Country of manufactureRussia
Description
A brass sheet is a flat rolled metal product with a rectangular cross-section.
Brass sheet. Characteristic
- Brand: L63T
- Size: 10x600x1500 mm
- Standard: GOST 931
Brass sheet. Unique properties
- Does not rust.
- Does not enter into chemical reactions.
- Easy to process.
- Does not expand when exposed to heat.
- Unaffected by aggressive environments.
What is made from brass sheets
- Signs, plates, facades.
- Furniture fittings.
- Souvenirs, signs and information plaques.
- Kitchenware.
- Printing matrices.
- Electrical devices.
- Decorative details.
- Brass pipes.
In what areas are brass sheets needed?
- Instrumentation.
- Mechanical engineering.
- Electric power industry.
- Chemical industry.
- Food industry.
- Construction.
- Printing.
- Automotive industry.
- Shipbuilding.
You can buy brass sheets at a competitive price from stock and to order directly from KMI Company LLP
The price is determined by the volume of products, payment terms, place and method of delivery. The minimum order amount is 28,000 tenge. Please check with the sales department for the final cost.
Advantages of working with KMI Company LLP
- KAZAKHSTAN METAL INDUSTRIAL COMPANY is part of a large international holding company operating in Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan for more than 10 years.
- Thanks to our network of warehouses in different countries, we offer the most favorable conditions for purchasing rolled metal products.
- We have created an extensive system of working with the largest manufacturers of metal products and have streamlined logistics so that you save time and money.
This price list is for informational purposes only and under no circumstances is it a public offer as defined by the provisions of Art. 447 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Contact the seller
Source: https://kg.all.biz/list-latunnyj-10h600h1500-mm-l63t-gost-931-g3113219KZ
Rolled sheet weight table
Constant improvement of the construction industry brings various new products into our everyday life, with the help of which modern builders have the opportunity to build new structures. Such innovations make it possible to invent more universal elements that find their application in mechanical engineering, the production of specific equipment and in other areas of human activity.
One of these elements is steel sheets, which act as an indispensable part in the construction of various building structures and are used in the development of modern cars and various equipment.
Steel sheets advantageously combine strength, reliability, durability and availability, which makes them very popular design elements among domestic and foreign manufacturing companies.
In more detail, the advantages of steel sheet allow it to be used for:
- construction of welded structures;
- creating hulls for cars or watercraft;
- production of equipment resistant to chemicals and elevated temperatures;
- production of agricultural and industrial machinery.
By the way, the weight of such a sheet is as acceptable as possible, which makes it available for delivery to any facility - customers can place an order for a large batch of steel sheet that will fit even in a not very spacious car.
Due to the specifics of the sheet, including weight, each individual element fits comfortably on top of the other, which ensures the most compact packaging, which has a positive effect on maintaining the integrity of the sheets during transportation.