What is the softest metal in the world

The softest metal in the world

Metals are a type of materials that have been used by humans since ancient times. This group of substances is very numerous, but they all have common physical characteristics, which are commonly called metallic properties. Hardness is common among them, but not decisive. Others are more specific, which even the softest metal has. These properties are determined by the features of their structure at the molecular level.

Iron and its alloys (steel, cast iron), copper, aluminum. The use of these materials marked breakthroughs in scientific and technological progress at different stages of the development of civilization. Each of these metals has characteristics that give it unique practical value. Common features for them are high thermal and electrical conductivity, plasticity - the ability to maintain integrity during deformation, metallic luster.

A damask blade that cuts through iron armor, and the softest metal, on which traces remain from the slightest impact, have a similar internal structure.

It is based on a crystal lattice, at the nodes of which there are atoms with a positive and neutral charge, between which there is an “electron gas” - particles that have left the outer shells of the atoms due to a weakening of the bond with the nucleus.

A special metallic bond between positive ions located at the nodes of the crystal lattice is carried out due to the attractive forces arising in the “electron gas”. The hardness, density, and melting point of the metal depend on the concentration of this “gas.”

Criteria for evaluation

The answer to the question of which metal is the softest will always be a subject of discussion unless the evaluation criteria are agreed upon and the very concept of softness is defined. Opinions about this material characteristic will vary among specialists in different industries. A metallurgist may understand softness as increased malleability, a tendency to accept deformations from abrasive materials, etc.

It is important for materials scientists to be able to objectively compare different characteristics of substances. Softness should also have generally accepted evaluation criteria. The softest metal in the world must have generally recognized indicators proving its “record” characteristics. There are several techniques whose purpose is to measure the softness of various materials.

Measurement methods

Most certified methods for measuring hardness are based on the contact effect on the test material from a harder body called an indenter, measured using precision instruments. Depending on the type of indenter and the measurement methods, there are several main methods:

- Brinell method. The diameter of the imprint left by a metal ball when pressed into the surface of the test substance is determined.

- Rockwell method. The depth of indentation into the surface of the ball or diamond cone is measured.

— Vickers method. The area of ​​the imprint left by the diamond tetrahedral pyramid is determined.

— Shore hardness. There are scales for very hard and very soft materials - the depth of immersion of a special needle or the height of rebound from the surface of a special striker is measured.

Mohs hardness scale

This scale for determining the relative hardness of minerals and metals was proposed at the beginning of the 19th century by the German Friedrich Mohs.

It is based on the scratching method, where a harder sample leaves a mark on a softer one, and is very convenient for finding out which metal is the softest.

In relation to 10 reference minerals, which are assigned a conditional hardness index, the place on the scale and a digital index are determined for the test substance. The softest reference mineral is talc. It has a Mohs hardness of 1, and the hardest, diamond, is 10.

Hardness is assessed on the Mohs scale according to the “softer - harder” principle. It is possible to determine exactly how many times, for example, aluminum, which has an index on the Mohs scale of 2.75, is softer than tungsten (6.0), only by having measurement results based on other methods. But to determine the softest metal in the periodic table, this table is quite enough.

The softest are alkali metals

From the Mohs mineralogical scale it is clear that the softest substances are those belonging to the alkali metals. Even mercury, familiar to many from the liquid from a thermometer, has a hardness index of 1.5. Softer than it are several substances that have similar physical, mechanical and chemical properties: lithium (0.6 on the Mohs scale), sodium (0.5), potassium (0.4), rubidium (0.3). The softest metal is cesium, which has a Mohs hardness rating of 0.2.

The physical and chemical properties of alkali metals are determined by their electronic configuration. It differs only slightly from the structure of inert gases. An electron located at the outer energy level has mobility, which determines high chemical activity. The softest metals are particularly volatile and difficult to mine and preserve unchanged. They are characterized by violent chemical interactions with air, water, and oxygen.

Item #55

The name “cesium” comes from the Latin caesius - “sky blue”: in the spectrum emitted by a highly heated substance, two bright blue stripes are visible in the infrared range.

In its pure form, it reflects light well, looks like light gold and has a silvery-yellow color. Cesium is the softest metal in the world, the Brinell hardness index is 0.15 Mn/m2 (0.015 kgf/cm2).

Melting point: +28.5°C, therefore, under normal conditions, at room temperature, cesium is in a semi-liquid state.

It is a rare, expensive and extremely reactive metal. In electronics, radio engineering and the high-tech chemical industry, cesium and alloys based on it are increasingly used and the need for it is constantly growing.

Its chemical activity and ability to form compounds with the highest electrical conductivity are in demand. Cesium is an important component in the production of special optical devices, lamps with unique properties and other high-tech products.

At the same time, softness is not its most sought-after quality.

Source: https://masakarton.com/samyy-myagkiy-metall-v-mire/

Übersetzungen - Jacob's corrosion-resistant alloy - - auf russisch

• 381 Hoskin alloy C Electrochemistry: hoskin alloy C Universal English-Russian Dictionary > Hoskin alloy C
• 382 admiralty brass Universal English-Russian Dictionary > admiralty brass
• 383 corrosion-resisting Universal English-Russian Dictionary > corrosion-resisting
• 384 ruselite Universal English-Russian Dictionary > ruselite
• 385 L Deutsch-Russische Wörterbuch polytechnischen > L
• 386 corrosion-resistant alloy • corrosion-resistant alloy Metallurgy dictionary > corrosion-resistant alloy
• 387 korrosionsbeständige Legierung Deutsch-Russische Metallurgie Wörterbuch > korrosionsbeständige Legierung
• 388 métal Français-Russe dictionnaire de génie mécanique > métal
• 389 incoloy incolloy Heat-resistant alloy based on iron (< 0.1% C) with high. quantity of Ni (~ 35%), and Cr (~ 25%) provided. stable austenitic structure in a wide temperature range. The high heat resistance of the alloy is achieved by complex alloying with Cr, Mo, Al, Ti, strengthening solids. solution and causing dispersive TV. due to the release during aging of intermetallic phases such as Ni3Al, Ni3Ti, etc. According to the level of heat resistance, alloys of type i. are close to Ni-alloys and in some cases can serve as their substitutes. I. is used for manufacturing. blades, disks and other gas parts. turbine reactor engines and industrial power plants with limited service life at temperatures of 550-750 °C, can be used at low temperatures and as a corrosion-resistant material. [http://metaltrade.ru/abc/a.htm]

  EN

English-Russian Dictionary of Normative and Technical Terminology > incoloy

390 British metal

(alloy of tin, copper, antimony, sometimes zinc) Britannia metal

Large English-Russian dictionary > British metal

391 race

Large English-Russian dictionary > race

392 cutting area

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > logging

393 platinoid

husband.;
metal (alloy of copper, zinc, nickel and tungsten) platinoid

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > platinum

394 red brass

husband.;
those. (copper-zinc alloy) tombac, pinchbeck

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > tompak

395 Allimel

alumel (nickel alloy 2.5% Mn, 2% A1, 1% Si)

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > Allimel

396 Britannia metal

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > Britannia metal

397 Dutch metal

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > Dutch metal

398 Incoloy

firms incoloy (heat-resistant and heat-resistant nickel-chrome alloy)

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > Incoloy

399 Isoperm

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > Isoperm

400 Monel

Monel metal (nickel-copper alloy)

Large English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary > Monel

Seiten

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Which metal is the lightest? Its properties and features:

The word "metal" is often associated with heaviness. This is far from true. All metals have very different properties. Some of them are so light that they don’t even sink in water. Which metal is the lightest? What are its properties? Let's find out.

The lightest metals in the world

Metals that have low density are called light. This is by no means a rare occurrence. Substances with such characteristics make up approximately 20% of the mass of the earth's crust. They are actively mined and widely used in industry.

The lightest metal is lithium. In addition to the lowest atomic mass, it also has the lowest density, which is two times lower than that of water. After lithium come potassium, sodium, aluminum, rubidium, cesium, strontium, etc. These include titanium, which has the highest strength among metals.

Aluminum is also lightweight and durable. It is the third most common in the earth's crust. Until people learned to obtain it industrially, the metal was more expensive than gold. Nowadays, a kilogram of aluminum can be bought for about $2. It is used both in rocketry and the military industry, and for the manufacture of food foil and kitchen items.

Lithium

Lithium is in the first group of the periodic table of elements. It is number 3, after hydrogen and helium, and has the smallest atomic mass of all metals. A simple substance, lithium, under normal conditions has a silvery-white color.

It is the lightest alkali metal with a density of 0.534 g/cm³. Because of this, it floats not only in water, but also in kerosene. For its storage, paraffin, gasoline, mineral oils or petroleum ether are usually used. Lithium is very soft and ductile, easy to cut with a knife. To melt this metal, it must be heated to a temperature of 180.54 °C. It will boil only at 1340 °C.

There are only two stable isotopes of the metal in nature: Lithium-6 and Lithium-7. In addition to them, there are 7 artificial isotopes and 2 nuclear isomers. Lithium is an intermediate product in the reaction of converting hydrogen into helium, thus participating in the process of formation of stellar energy.

Reactions with lithium

Given its alkaline nature, it can be assumed that it is very active. However, metal is the calmest representative of its group. At normal room temperature, lithium reacts weakly with oxygen and many other substances. It shows its “violent temper” after heating, then it reacts with acids, various gases and bases.

Unlike other alkali metals, it reacts mildly with water, forming hydroxide and hydrogen. There is practically no reaction with dry air. But if it is wet, then lithium slowly reacts with its gases, forming nitride, carbonate and hydroxide.

At certain temperatures, the lightest metal is active with ammonia, ethyl alcohol, halogens, hydrogen, carbon, silicon, and sulfur.

Lithium alloys

The properties of lithium enhance certain qualities of metals, which is why it is often used in alloys. Its reaction with oxides, hydrogen, and sulfides is useful. When heated, it forms insoluble compounds with them, which are easy to extract from molten metals, purifying them of these substances.

To give the alloy corrosion resistance and ductility, it is mixed with magnesium and aluminum. Copper alloyed with it becomes denser and less porous, and conducts electricity better. The lightest metal increases the hardness and ductility of lead. At the same time, it increases the melting point of many substances.

Thanks to lithium, the metal becomes durable and resistant to damage. At the same time, it does not weigh them down. That is why alloys based on it are used in space engineering and aviation. Mixtures with cadmium, copper, scandium and magnesium are mainly used.

Finding in nature and meaning

The lightest metal has about 30 minerals of its own, but only 5 of them are used in industry: pentalite, amblygonite, lepidolite, zinnwaldite and spodumene. In addition, it is located in salt lakes. In total, the earth's crust contains 0.005% of this metal.

Large industrial reserves of lithium are found on all continents. It is mined in Brazil, Australia, South Africa, Canada, USA and other countries. After which it is used in electronics, metallurgy, laser materials, nuclear energy and even medicine.

There is a high lithium content in humus, which indicates its participation in the cycle of natural substances. The metal is present in the body of animals, as well as in many plants. Peaches, mushrooms, radishes, potatoes, and carrots are rich in lithium.

In our body it is found in the liver, blood, lungs, bones and other organs. Lack of lithium leads to disturbances in the functioning of the nervous system and brain. It increases the body's resistance to disease and activates the activity of enzymes. It is used to fight Alzheimer's disease, mental disorders, sclerosis, and various addictions.

Toxicity

Despite lithium's important biological role in our bodies, it can be dangerous. The lightest metal is quite toxic and can cause poisoning. When burned, it provokes irritation and swelling of the mucous membranes. If a piece of whole metal gets on them, the same thing will happen.

Lithium should not be handled without gloves. By interacting with moisture in the air or moisture on the skin, it easily causes burns. You need to be even more careful with molten metal, as its activity increases significantly. When working with it, you need to remember that it is an alkali. You can reduce its effect on the skin with ordinary vinegar.

In the body, lithium increases the stability of the immune system and improves the functioning of the nervous system. But its excess is accompanied by dizziness, drowsiness, and loss of appetite. Metal poisoning leads to decreased libido, muscle weakness, and weight gain. In this case, vision and memory may deteriorate and coma may occur. When working with lithium, you should always wear gloves, a protective suit and goggles.

Source: https://www.syl.ru/article/363645/kakoy-metall-samyiy-legkiy-ego-svoystva-i-osobennosti

The softest metals in the world

Almost everyone has come across a metal such as gold at least once, because it is used in many areas of our lives. Other softest metals also bring benefits to humans - mercury, potassium, sodium, etc. It is difficult to name any other metal other than gold that has played such an important role in the history of mankind.

Wars were sparked over gold, it inspired many passions, and in the hope of finding “mountains of gold” a person could go to incredible hardships. The history of this metal is comparable to the history of civilization. According to archaeologists, gold was used in Mesopotamia and Egypt; there are lines about it in the Old Testament. This metal is quite dispersed in nature.

Gold is found in sea water, in the human body, and can be found in almost any fragment of granite. And this despite the fact that gold is only millionths of a percent in the earth’s crust.

In its pure form, the color of this metal is yellow with a hint of red, which distinguishes it from all other metals. Gold is a soft noble metal.

It is easily destroyed by the environment.

In its pure form, it is such a soft metal that it is easy to scratch it even with a fingernail. It is known that from one gram of this metal a three-kilometer wire can be drawn, and a gram will also be enough to make the thinnest gold foil, which will be hundreds of times thinner than a human hair, and will bend without breaking.

In terms of mechanical strength and chemical resistance, this precious metal is inferior to almost all platinum group metals, but it is indispensable for electrical contacts. This is why electroplating and gold conductors are widely used in microelectronics. Nuclear research cannot do without gold, where it is used as a target. It is also used in a neutron bomb as a neutron shell.

Due to the softness of gold, it can be given absolutely any shape and is easy to process. Gold has been used in jewelry for more than five thousand years. Previously, it was used to make palace utensils, religious items, and gilded clothing. Thanks to the admixtures of other metals, gold of different colors is obtained. Since it is impossible to completely purify gold from impurities, there is no one hundred percent gold. Even bank bullion bars say 99.99%. For a long time, only jewelry was made from gold, but over time it began to play the role of a means of accumulation and savings. By the way, gold is far from the most expensive metal. According to uznayvse.ru, rhodium is much more expensive. One gram of this substance costs $255.

What are soft metals made of?

Besides gold, soft metals include copper, silver, aluminum, but the softest are cesium, potassium, sodium, rubidium, etc. Despite the fact that there is twenty times more silver on the planet than gold, this precious metal is also considered rare. It is easy to process, in this it is second only to gold. It is used to make dishes, jewelry, coins and cutlery.

The soft metal copper has been known since ancient times and was of great importance in the development of mankind and material culture. Everyone knows about the Copper Age, when people used tools made of this metal and its alloys. Today it is widely used in medicine, art and industry. Potassium is used in agriculture in the form of potassium salts. The main use of this metal is the preparation of potassium peroxide.

The production of cathodes, photomultipliers, electrovacuum photocells and electron-optical converters cannot be done without a metal such as cesium. Rubidium has also found application in various fields. However, it cannot be said that the scope of its application is wide. Worldwide production of this metal is only a few tens of kilograms per year.

Its compounds are used for the manufacture of special optics, in the nuclear and electronic industries, in analytical chemistry, and in the manufacture of measuring instruments. Sodium is also widely used. There is practically no industry that can do without sodium. This metal in liquid form, as well as in the form of alloys with potassium, is used as a coolant in nuclear energy.

In metallurgy, sodium serves as a reducing agent in the production of zirconium, uranium, titanium, thorium and other metals. Sodium is also used in the chemical industry in the production of antiseptics and fertilizers. In light industry, sodium is needed for leather processing.

The softest metal in the world

Mercury is considered one of the most amazing chemical elements, since being a metal, it is in a liquid state. Because of this, mercury is recognized as the softest metal in the world. People have a special relationship with mercury. The thing is that it can evaporate while in a liquid state.

For many centuries, mercury has served for the benefit of man and was used in various areas of his activity. Today, more than one thousand areas of its application are known - instrument making, defense industry, agriculture, vacuum technology, mining, electrical engineering, chemical industry, etc.

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Source: https://uznayvse.ru/interesting-facts/samyie-myagkie-metallyi-v-mire.html

Which metal is the lightest

Externally, lithium is similar to ordinary ice; it also has a light silver tint. But its distinctive features are lightness, softness and plasticity. The metal interacts well with environmental liquids and gases, so it is not used in its pure form.

Typically, lithium is alloyed with other substances and metals, most often sodium. Although lithium is the lightest metal in the periodic table, at the same time it has the highest melting point among the alkali metals. Lithium melts at a temperature of 180°C.

Application

— Some lithium alloys are used in the space industry and electronics.

- Organic lithium compounds are used in the food, textile and pharmaceutical industries. - This metal is also used in the manufacture of some types of glass. - Lithium fluoride is widely used in optics. - One of the most useful inventions is the lithium-ion battery, it supports the performance of various gadgets thanks to properties of lithium. - Using lithium compounds, rocket fuel is made.

— The pyrotechnic industry would not exist without lithium nitrate.

In the pyrotechnics industry, lithium is used to create red fireworks.

Lithium is not the limit of lightness of metals

Just recently, a research department at the University of California, led by HRL, invented a new hard and ultra-light metal called microlattis.

The very light structure of the new metal, whose metal lattice is similar to an ordinary sponge, turned out to be hundreds of times lighter than foam.

Although the new discovery seems quite fragile in appearance, if you take a closer look at it, you will notice the extraordinary ability of the metal to withstand simply unrealistic loads in accordance with its mass index.

A small piece of microlattis metal can be placed on the top of a dandelion, and it will not even damage its cap.

Secrets of lightness

The secret is that the newly discovered metal is actually made of air.

Unlike lithium, whose metal lattice at the microscopic level is built as if from massive beams, the microlattis lattice is composed of a polymer chain of hollow tubes thousands of times thinner than a human hair.

Thanks to these qualities of the new material, it can be used in almost all areas of human activity, from sound insulation to the aerospace industry.

Source: https://www.kakprosto.ru/kak-824824-kakoy-metall-samyy-legkiy-

Soft metals list - Metalist's Handbook

Non-ferrous is a group of different metals and their alloys.

Let's take a closer look at what non-ferrous metal scrap is.

There are two groups of metals:

Iron and its alloys are called black

The rest are non-ferrous or non-ferrous.

Their list is diverse:

• aluminum;
• copper;
• nickel;
• manganese;
• titanium;
• zirconium, etc.

are in demand today both in production and in scientific activities . Their areas of application are varied.

Scrap metal collection points are happy to buy non-ferrous metal scrap at competitive prices, and in order to avoid getting into trouble when handing it over, you need to be familiar with the types and know the standard classification of non-ferrous metals.

Classification of non-ferrous metals according to GOST

The current GOST 1639-2009 clearly indicates what belongs to non-ferrous metal scrap.

The classification of scrap is divided into four main sections that characterize it:

• Name;
• physical parameters;
• chemical composition;
• quality.

GOST metals and their alloys.

displays 13 types that are accepted in organizations for the reception of recyclable materials.

Below is a table in which you can see a list of non-ferrous metals in one list and the number of individual types of scrap:

Pure metal can rarely be found , since most scrap is made up of alloys.

Upon acceptance, belonging to one or another type is assessed by the element that is greater in percentage terms in recyclable materials.

This ratio can be determined using special equipment.

Non-ferrous metal scrap is divided into types according to the following criteria :

• origin;
• chemical composition;
• physical state.

The origin of the scrap may be as follows:

• industrial waste;
• marriage;
• substandard;
• scrap of finished products.

The chemical composition of non-ferrous metal scrap, which is determined in the laboratory, shows which metal or alloy it belongs to.

The most valuable recyclable materials are unalloyed metals with a low content of impurities. Physical parameters are just as important when passing as chemical ones.

According to these characteristics, scrap is divided into the following classes :

• A – directly refers to scrap and lump waste;
• B – includes shavings, tangled wire and small pieces;
• B - powdered waste (mainly found only in rare metals: tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum and titanium);
• G - other recyclables.

Safety

All non-ferrous scrap must be checked for:

• presence of radiation and harmful chemical contamination;
• explosion hazard.

When transporting scrap metal, it must be accompanied by documentation on radiation and explosion safety.

The concentration of harmful substances must not exceed the values ​​specified in GOST 12.1.005.

The Russian Ministry of Natural Resources has identified five classes of chemical, radiation and explosion hazards of non-ferrous metal scrap:

1. Hazardous waste with great harm to the ecosystem. These include mercury, polonium and plutonium.
2. Highly hazardous waste, the consequences of which take nature thirty years to remove. These are alloys of lead, cobalt and molybdenum.
3. Moderate danger , in which it takes ten years to restore the ecology. This is scrap mixed with copper, nickel, iron, zinc, aluminum and silver.
4. Low hazardous waste, removal of the consequences takes three years. This includes scrap bronze.
5. Low danger , such scrap does not harm the environment. This is the most common class among colored scrap.

Due to the expected harm to humans and nature, all operations with non-ferrous scrap require a license from the points accepting secondary non-ferrous metals. Checking for all types of hazards is carried out according to the following scheme:

Quality

GOST specifies quality parameters that determine the grade of scrap.

characteristics are of great importance here :

• scrap size;
• origin of scrap;
• uniformity;
• amount of blockage;
• chemical composition;
• physical state;
• dimensions and volume.

Quality is determined on a representative sample.

According to GOST, all transported scrap must be marked with the following indication:

• names;
• GOST designations;
• designations of the type of recyclable materials;
• alloy grades.

Marking of non-ferrous metals and alloys must be firmly attached to the cargo during transportation and storage.

To determine the grade of metal, you need to look at the stamp book , a special document with all the markings of the metal or alloy you are interested in.

Kinds

The large number of non-ferrous metals and various characteristics required their classification into separate types.

industrial systematization is in use , reflecting the historically established components of the metallurgical industry and the science of the same name.

The name itself does not fully reflect the essence of non-ferrous metal.

Only gold and copper are colored, while the rest are the usual grey-black shades.

Science usually distinguishes the following types of non-ferrous metals and alloys:

• lungs;
• heavy;
• noble;
• refractory;
• scattered;
• rare earth;
• radioactive.

industry in Russia today is on the rise and includes:

• metal mining;
• ore beneficiation;
• metal smelting

The main non-ferrous metals include:

Aluminum is an excellent electrical conductor. It is flexible, which is both its advantage and disadvantage.

To give it strength add :

• manganese;
• copper;
• magnesium, etc.

Such alloys are used for the production of :

• airplanes;
• sea ​​and river ships;
• space shuttles;
• in construction;
• in the food industry.

Aluminum and its alloys are the cheapest type of non-ferrous metal scrap.

You can find it in a variety of household items, including:

• siding;
• gutters;
• roofing

Copper is a commonly found non-ferrous metal.

It also has good characteristics:

• plastic;
• good electrical conductor;
• good heat conductor.

It is in great demand in alloys and is used in various economic sectors.

Its alloy with zinc and tin is known - brass.

It can be found in:

• cars;
• hours;
• expensive jewelry.

find copper for scrap metal in:

• power cables;
• water pipes;
• household products.

Copper is highly valued at recycling centers.

Rare

Rare earth metals are used to improve the qualities of other metals and became widely used with the development of industrial production in the 20th century.

These are the following metals:

• scandium;
• yttrium;
• lanthanides.

The name itself suggests that there is very little of these non-ferrous metals in the earth's crust. Also, previously, refractory oxides that form rare non-ferrous metals were called “earths” . They are extracted from oxides.

Today, rare earth metals can be found in all digital devices:

• smartphones;
• players;
• computers;
• in hybrid engines;
• in other electronics.

Alloys made from them have high characteristics , for example:

• anti-corrosion;
• strength;
• heat resistant.

Let's consider heavy non-ferrous metals, collecting them in several lists.

The heaviest non-ferrous metals on Earth:

Rarely found in soil , it is generally the most expensive non-ferrous metal.

Also included in this group are:

• copper;
• lead;
• zinc;
• tin;
• nickel.

All of them have a high density and, accordingly, a lot of weight, which is why they get the name – heavy.

Lead is widely known and used in many industries , contained in:

It is made from:

Lead is also used to create protective aprons from radiation .

Has the following characteristics:

• low thermal conductivity;
• plastic;
• toxicity.

Therefore, lead must be used carefully, following all safety regulations.

Tin used to be called an alloy of lead and silver.

Today, tin is used in the metallurgical industry and the production of various alloys, which include:

• bearings;
• packaging foil;
• bronze;
• food tin;
• wires

Nickel is a heavy non-ferrous metal with high heat-resistant and anti-corrosion characteristics. Nickel is used in alloys. In stainless steel it is the main component.

Made from nickel :

• coins;
• armor;
• chemical equipment;
• wire;
• foil;
• a thread;
• powder;
• alkaline batteries.

in demand in:

• shipbuilding;
• electrical engineering.

Lungs

The definition of “light non-ferrous metals” includes metals with low density.

List of the most popular light non-ferrous metals:

• aluminum;
• tin;
• magnesium;
• titanium;
• beryllium;
• lithium.

The lightest non-ferrous metal is lithium. It is widely used in various alloys.

is used in:

• chemical industry;
• metallurgical industry;
• military-industrial complex;
• thermonuclear energy.

Lithium is also used in the manufacture of:

• optics;
• alkaline batteries;
• ceramic products.

The ductility of magnesium is not as good as that of copper and aluminum, which affects the welding properties of this metal. But it can be easily cut with a special tool. At the same time, the mechanical properties leave much to be desired. This it to be widely introduced into industrial production .

Popular types at collection points

The most popular non-ferrous metals at collection points:

If you want to find out what is more profitable to rent out, then read this article.

Conclusion

Historically, non-ferrous metals are divided into types:

• lungs;
• heavy;
• noble;
• rare earths, etc.

This classification is accepted in technology; today it meets almost all the requirements of the industrial industry.

This makes it easier:

• the task of producing new alloys;
• delivery of secondary raw materials from non-ferrous metal at collection points.

Each operation for the acceptance and delivery of non-ferrous metal must be confirmed by an act that states:

• compound;
• quality;
• volume;
• cost per kilogram and for all scrap.

When handing over scrap, make sure that is honest . Many small points deliberately underestimate the grade of scrap or weigh it using incorrectly working scales.

  Homemade surface grinding machine for metal

How to prepare non-ferrous scrap metal for delivery, see this video:

Source: https://ssk2121.com/myagkie-metally-spisok/

Aluminum hard or soft

Aluminum is a low-melting, ductile and soft metal, which is why it is often used by craftsmen to make various parts at home.

But aluminum has a drawback. It has a very unpresentable appearance due to the protective film formed on its surface.

In other words, aluminum darkens in air, and when used, it gets your hands dirty, because... the film is unstable. To remedy the situation, aluminum is anodized.

We'll talk about how to do this at home in our article.

Anodizing aluminum: what is it?

As already mentioned at the very beginning, aluminum, when interacting with oxygen in the air, oxidizes.

An oxide film forms on its surface, which is very unstable to mechanical damage.

To secure this film and protect it from abrasion, the aluminum is anodized.

How does the property of aluminum parts change after anodizing? That's how:

• the top layer of metal is strengthened;
• visual and tactile alignment of small errors in the metal surface (scratches, pinhole damage, etc.) occurs;
• the process of applying coloring matter to an aluminum workpiece is improved;
• the part takes on a more presentable appearance;
• it becomes possible to imitate various metals (silver, platinum, gold and even pearls).

Hard anodizing of aluminum: advantages and disadvantages

Anodizing aluminum at home can be done in two ways: hard (cold) and warm.

The latter, due to its complexity, is practically not used at home, but hard anodizing has become widespread among craftsmen.

This process has its advantages and disadvantages.

The first include such as obtaining a thick protective layer that has good strength characteristics, as well as the formation of a high-strength anti-corrosion film on the metal surface.

Among the shortcomings, one is noted: the inability to retain a uniform layer of organic-based dye on its surface.

The dye applies unevenly and is not durable.

However, during the process of hard anodizing, the workpiece itself is painted in natural colors from greenish, through yellowish-brown to deep gray.

What is needed for hard anodizing

Materials and equipment you will need:

Anodizing to color change

The entire process of anodizing at home can be divided into several stages.

But first I would like to dwell on the process of industrial cold anodization, which occurs using a solution of sulfuric acid.

As a result of this process, active gas evolution occurs, and volatile gases are explosive. That is why it is not recommended to carry out a similar process at home.

Home anodizing technology is safer. Let's talk about its main stages in more detail.

1. Preparing the necessary solutions
   For hard anodizing, two types of solution are prepared in different containers: one is saline, the other is soda, the basis for which is drinking distilled water of medium temperature (40-50 degrees). You will need nine times more soda solution than saline solution, and therefore an appropriate container is selected for it. Salt is added to warm water with constant stirring (to another soda). Saturated solutions are prepared, i.e. salt and soda are added until a precipitate begins to form. After this, the solutions must be filtered several times. Remember that the quality of anodization depends on the quality of the solutions (their transparency and purity). Before the hard anodizing process itself, the solutions are mixed in a ratio of 1 part salt and 9 parts soda.
2. We prepare the workpiece for anodizing.
   Well, everything is simple here. The workpiece must be thoroughly sanded and degreased.
3. We anodize.
   So, let's start anodizing. The parts must be placed in the bath so that they are completely immersed in the solution and do not touch the bottom or walls of the bath. Then an electric current is applied: to the bath “minus”, to the workpiece “plus”. The workpieces remain under the influence of tension in the bath until they change color. Then the current is turned off, the workpieces are removed and thoroughly washed in running water. Afterwards, the part is placed in a manganese solution, where traces of the salt-soda solution are finally removed from the surface of the part. Then we wash it again. Do you see any stains or streaks on the workpiece? So everything went well.
4. We fix the surface layer.
   As a result of anodization, a film was formed with a large number of pores that need to be closed. This is done by simply boiling in distilled water for half an hour.
5. Varnish or paint.
   To do this, place the anodized workpiece in a container with varnish or aniline paint (10%). That's it, the part is ready.

As you can see, the anodizing process at home is simple and accessible to everyone.

Author angor58

Source: https://steelfactoryrus.com/alyuminiy-tverdyy-ili-myagkiy/

Beautiful beds, popular solutions, materials, designer products

Evgeniy · 01/20/2020

The bedroom is a place of relaxation, rest, and restoration of spiritual harmony. You need to choose a bed so that it is pleasant and comfortable to sleep on. But the aesthetic side is also important. Among modern models there are truly beautiful beds that stand out from standard products. For true connoisseurs of beauty, manufacturers offer original, stylish sleep furniture with a unique design, made of expensive materials.

Exquisite models

Thanks to the inexhaustible flight of design ideas, incredibly beautiful products are born that will amaze even sophisticated aesthetes. Among the beds offered on the furniture market, you can find not only ultra-modern futuristic options, but also luxurious classic models with carved trim and gilding.

1. Hanging bed. It lacks any support. The structure is attached to the ceiling or other load-bearing elements. As a rule, the bed hangs on chains or strong thick ropes and sways with any movement of the person lying on it. Such a “swing” looks very unusual, but for those who are afraid of seasickness, it is better to take a closer look at other options.
2. Model with wide protrusions at the edges. Such furniture is relevant for the minimalist style and is suitable for a futuristic environment. The bed base protruding from all sides serves as a decorative element and can also be used for sitting. This prevents rapid wear and deformation of the mattress from local compression.
3. Soaring. Additionally equipped with decorative lighting, this model appears to be hovering in the air. It appears to float above the floor because there are no lower supports. The fastening is a reliable system that firmly holds the stock; the risk of the structure falling is eliminated.
4. Sleeping furniture with a soft headboard. The headboard is covered with textiles or leather, decorated with decorative stitches. Soft upholstery provides coziness and comfort while relaxing; you can lean on the headboard while reading a book. This is a safe option for children. A headboard with such finishing made of expensive fabrics looks rich and stylish.
5. Bed with a carved back. Elite models in a classic style can “boast” of skillful wood carving. It can be expensive handmade work, which gives the product an individual character, special sophistication and sophistication. Such furniture seems to have come into the house from the past, like the luxurious beds of the 19th century. Additionally, patination and varnishing are used for finishing, and the products are decorated with gold.
6. Bed with wrought iron headboard. The model can be stylized according to the country, shabby chic trends (openwork metal trim, bent legs). An aging effect is used to finish forged elements. For this purpose, a special composition (patina) is applied to the frame parts. The furniture looks elegant, noble, takes on its own character and seems to immerse you in a past era.
7. Beautiful model with a canopy. An option for the romantic nature. As a rule, airy, thin, translucent fabrics are used for canopies. It can be organza, silk, tulle or brocade. Today, the canopy, which came from the distant past, plays a purely aesthetic role; it is designed to create comfort and a feeling of privacy. Special mounts are installed above the bed to hold the fabric. Hanging curtains can be changed to any others if desired.

If lovers of beauty are not satisfied with the proposed models, beautiful beds in an original design can always be made to order according to your own sketch.

Hanging

With canopy

With wrought iron headboard

Soaring

With soft headboard

With wide ridges at the edges

With carved back

Materials used

Most often, wood, metal, textiles, and leather are used to make a beautiful and high-quality bed. The characteristics of each material affect the appearance of the product and its service life.

1. Metal, depending on the chosen style, is combined with fabric trim; plastic or leather can be used in tandem with it. The construction of this material is durable and will last a long time. Metal elements are patinated, chrome-plated, painted, and gilded. Ornate wrought-iron headboards look amazingly beautiful.
2. Valuable wood species. A solid wood bed is a win-win traditional option that is relevant at all times. The material is expensive, gives the products a respectable appearance, and speaks of the status of the owner, especially if valuable tree species are used. Wooden furniture is safe for health and durable. As a rule, natural solid wood is not painted, but varnished, preserving the natural pattern and color.
3. Expensive fabrics. A bed upholstered with textiles is a real decoration of the bedroom. Additionally, decorative stitching, embroidery, appliqués, various inserts, inlays with precious stones, and gold threads are used. The product attracts all attention, becoming the main piece of furniture. Textiles create a feeling of home comfort, and the bed beckons to you. Velvet, silk, satin, tapestry, and velor are used to upholster beautiful luxury beds.
4. Leather, artificial and natural. Durable, wear-resistant material. This covering allows us to classify the bed as a luxury product. Beautiful, stylish, elegant furniture is relevant in classic and modern interiors. Soft leather at the head of the bed creates additional comfort. Synthetic material is slightly worse in terms of quality characteristics and is cheaper, but it looks no less decent.

Combined bed models that combine different types of materials look interesting.

Creative, beautiful sleeping furniture can be made from pallets, untreated boards, wire (bed-basket), metal pipes. There are beds whose base is made from stacks of books.

Wooden

Metal

Upholstered in velvet

Leather

Combination of materials

From books

From metal pipes

From pallets

Solutions for different interior styles

Beautiful beds have a place in any interior. Features of style leave their mark on a piece of furniture, giving the product individuality.

1. Shabby chic. Delicate, romantic style. The bed is made in the spirit of “antique”; patination is used. Forged elements, stucco molding, wood carving, pastel-colored textiles with floral prints and lace are actively used. Popular colors are white and pink. Often the bed is decorated with a canopy with light, weightless, transparent fabrics.
2. Modern. Characteristic features of the style are the smooth flow of lines, non-standard forms, bends, and roundness. Only natural materials are used. An example of a bed in the Art Nouveau spirit would be a product with a curved base or the same back, wide projections around the perimeter, soft upholstery made of leather or fabric with quilted stitches.
3. Provence. The bed is elegantly simple. Metal backrests with openwork forging, wooden headboards with relief trim, canopies, delicate textiles, curly carved legs - all these are signs of this style.
4. Country. The products are distinguished by the deliberate roughness of their shapes; for the manufacture of beds, wood is predominantly used (often with minimal processing, preserving its natural appearance), as well as other natural materials. The models create a feeling of being in a cozy country house.
5. Loft. Sleeping furniture in this style should be as comfortable as possible, made from natural materials. A beautiful bed will be made of wood or metal; it may be characterized by simplicity of form, even a somewhat rough finish. There are laconic, stylish products without backs on low, almost invisible legs, with wide protrusions on the sides. Many models with a wooden frame are characterized by a metal edging. A backlit bed with a base made of pallets looks original, while the headboard is made of rough boards.
6. Classic. These beds exude luxury and aristocracy. These are necessarily rounded high headboards with ornate curves, upholstery made of expensive textiles, gilded metal elements, and canopies. The product itself looks majestic and pathetic.
7. Minimalism. The advantages of this style are its simplicity and severity. Models without any special frills or unnecessary details will take their rightful place among beautiful beds. Clear, even shapes, laconic design, adherence to geometric proportions, unusual designs (floating or hanging model, bed without legs or backs) - all these features are inherent in the minimalist style.

Any style has its own beauty; the choice of model depends on the personal preference of the future owner.

Country

Shabby chic

Classic

Minimalism

Provence

Modern

Loft

the most beautiful beds in the world

Today, many people prefer bedroom furniture that will not only provide a comfortable rest, but will also cause aesthetic pleasure. Famous designers from different countries create exclusive models for lovers of beauty that can confidently be considered real masterpieces. So, the most beautiful and expensive beds in the world:

1. A spacious sphere-shaped bed for a large bedroom is the brainchild of Karim Rashid. The product is valued at $50,000. This is a mini-room with its own walls and ceiling. The entire structure is covered with luxury fabrics. Inside there is a built-in TV, a champagne stand, and a sphere bed equipped with lighting.
2. A unique bed created by designer Jab Anstoez is the Majesty VI-Spring model. It amazes with the abundance of springs (6000 in total). The mattress itself is covered with natural silk, cashmere and cotton. The bed is decorated with gold and silver inserts. The price of the product is $84,400.
3. The model by designer Abdolhay Parnian (Parnian Furniture) is distinguished by its headboard. The backrest is made of ebony wood, which is complemented with gold elements and stainless steel inserts. The headboard is like a sphere and flows smoothly into the bedside cabinets. Incredible design and various amenities such as a built-in TV, a shelf for a tablet - all this costs over $210,000.
4. Steel Style Gold Bed is a model from the famous Jado brand. To purchase it, you will have to pay more than $676,500. Swarovski rhinestones and gold inserts were used to decorate the frame. Additional equipment of the bed includes a game console, video and stereo systems, and Internet access.

The Supreme bed is in first place in the rating, it looks simply royally luxurious and costs the same ($6,300,000). The model can be made to order. Manufacturing materials: ash and cherry wood. There is a canopy, the canopy in it is made of the finest silk fabric, and there is gold in the decoration of the frame.

Beautiful beds of the elite category are worthy of admiration, but not everyone can afford them. Exclusive models are made in limited quantities according to an individual sketch, emphasizing the status and financial position of the owner.

Baldacchino Supreme

Majesty VI-Spring by Jab Anstoez

Parnian Furniture by designer Abdolhay Parnian

Source: https://mebel-sovet.ru/krovati/kreativnye/1093-krasivye

Rare metals: why are they so important - and why do we know so little about them?

Thanks to these elements, our devices are becoming smaller and more powerful. What makes the glass surface of the phone “magical,” that is, responsive to touch, is a grain of the rare metal indium, which makes an invisible connection and serves as a transparent conductor between the phone and your finger.

Deposition of europium and terbium produces brilliant reds and greens on the screen, tantalum particles control the power in the phone, and lithium stores the energy that makes the phone mobile.

The production of iPhone components is also indispensable without rare metals: cerium is used to polish glass at the molecular level.

Steve Jobs' desire to make gadgets small and powerful led his company to collect more and more elements from the periodic table and deliver them to the masses. Moreover, the commercial success of the iPhone has changed our expectations from gadgets. It has spurred the development of new industries, including mobile apps and tablets, making rare metals an integral component not only of smartphones, but also of a variety of new technologies.

Not only did Jobs deliver on his promise to reinvent the telephone, he also helped reinvent the world's supply chain. And in the process, he helped usher in a new era - the age of rare metals.

Rare metals are found everywhere (really everywhere) - from floating bridges to headphones. They are in sofas, camera lenses, computers and cars. But they are rarely used on their own or as base materials. In essence, rare metals are like the yeast on a pizza. They are important in small quantities. Without yeast there will be no pizza, and without rare metals there will be no high-tech world.

Rare metals are the foundation of our modern high-tech, green and military industries. Rare metals have the same transformative effect as oil and coal. And they will attract as much attention as fossil fuels, meaning that those who control and manage their production and distribution will reap enormous economic and geopolitical benefits.

Yet, unlike oil or coal, their reserves are often much more limited, and their deposits are found in just a few places on Earth. Many of them have such unique properties and actions that they cannot be replaced by cheaper or more functional alternatives. Our dependence on rare metals is not just an abstract geopolitical issue or a topic exclusively related to materials science.

She is a potential source of conflict. But it was not always so.

***

Just 150 years ago, almost all the materials in every person's home came from a nearby forest or quarry. By the 1960s, with the development of supply chains and increased demand for consumer household products, the average American home used about 20 elements. Since then, materials scientists have led a silent revolution, transforming the manufactured products that serve us and the materials that enable them to work.

In the 1990s, Intel used just 15 elements to create computer chips; now it needs almost 60.

Our personal consumer decisions today, along with the technologies we use every day, have significant implications for rare metal reserves. Unfortunately, we don't think much about this connection between us and these resources.

Although rare metals have always existed, many of them were discovered in the last few hundred years, and some only in the last century. Companies now use elements that scientists considered mere impurities just a few decades ago.

Over the past 35 years, mining companies have produced 4 times more of many (if not all) rare metals than since the dawn of civilization until 1980.

Source: https://knife.media/rare-metals/

The strongest steel in the world

Can you imagine what would have happened if our ancestors had not discovered important metals such as silver, gold, copper and iron? We would probably still be living in huts using stone as our main tool. It is the strength of the metal that played an important role in shaping our past and now works as the foundation on which we build the future.

Some of them are very soft and literally melt in your hands, like the most active metal in the world. Others are so hard that they cannot be bent, scratched or broken without the use of special tools.

And if you are wondering which metals are the hardest and most durable in the world, we will answer this question, taking into account various estimates of the relative hardness of materials (Mohs scale, Brinell method), as well as parameters such as:

• Young's modulus: takes into account the tensile elasticity of an element, that is, the ability of an object to resist elastic deformation.
• Yield Strength: Determines the maximum tensile strength of a material beyond which it begins to exhibit plastic behavior.
• Tensile strength: the limiting mechanical stress beyond which a material begins to fail.

10. Tantalum

This metal has three advantages: it is durable, dense and very resistant to corrosion. In addition, this element belongs to the group of refractory metals such as tungsten. To melt tantalum you will have to build a fire at a temperature of 3,017 °C.

Tantalum is primarily used in the electronics sector to produce long-lasting, heavy-duty capacitors for phones, home computers, cameras, and even electronic devices in cars.

9. Beryllium

But it’s better not to approach this metal beauty without protective equipment. Because beryllium is highly toxic and has carcinogenic and allergic effects. If you inhale air containing beryllium dust or vapor, beryllium disease will occur, affecting the lungs.

However, beryllium is not only harmful, but also beneficial. For example, add just 0.5% beryllium to steel and get springs that will remain elastic even when brought to red-hot temperatures. They can withstand billions of load cycles.

Beryllium is used in the aerospace industry to create heat shields and guidance systems, and to create fire-resistant materials. And even the vacuum tube of the Large Hadron Collider is made of beryllium.

8. Uranus

This naturally occurring radioactive substance is very widespread in the earth's crust, but is concentrated in certain hard rock formations.

One of the world's hardest metals, it has two commercially significant applications - nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. Thus, the final products of the uranium industry are bombs and radioactive waste.

7. Iron and steel

As a pure substance, iron is not as hard as other participants in the rating. But due to its minimal extraction costs, it is often combined with other elements to produce steel.

Steel is a very strong alloy made of iron and other elements such as carbon. It is the most commonly used material in construction, mechanical engineering and other industries. And even if you have nothing to do with them, you still use steel every time you cut food with a knife (unless it’s ceramic, of course).

6. Titan

Titanium is practically synonymous with strength. It has an impressive specific strength (30-35 km), which is almost twice as high as that of alloy steels.

Being a refractory metal, titanium is highly resistant to heat and abrasion, which is why it is one of the most popular alloys. For example, it can be alloyed with iron and carbon.

If you need a very hard and at the same time very light structure, then you cannot find a better metal than titanium. This makes it the number one choice for creating various parts in the aircraft, rocket and shipbuilding industries.

5. Rhenium

This is a very rare and expensive metal, which, although found in nature in its pure form, is usually an “appendage” - an impurity to molybdenite.

If Iron Man's suit were made of rhenium, it could withstand temperatures of 2000°C without losing strength. We will remain silent about what would have happened to Iron Man himself inside the suit after such a “fire show”.

Russia is the third country in the world in terms of natural reserves of rhenium. This metal is used in the petrochemical industry, electronics and electrical engineering, and in aircraft and rocket engines.

4. Chrome

On the Mohs scale, which measures the scratch resistance of chemical elements, chromium is in the top five, behind only boron, diamond and tungsten.

Chrome is valued for its high corrosion resistance and hardness. It is easier to handle than the platinum group metals and is more abundant, which is why chromium is a popular element used in alloys such as stainless steel.

And one of the strongest metals on Earth is used in the creation of dietary supplements. Of course, you will not be ingesting pure chromium, but a dietary combination of it with other substances (for example, chromium picolinate).

3. Iridium

Like its “brother” osmium, iridium belongs to the platinum group metals and resembles platinum in appearance. It is very hard and refractory. To melt iridium, you will have to build a fire above 2000 °C.

Iridium is considered one of the heaviest metals on Earth, as well as one of the most corrosion-resistant elements.

2. Osmium

This “tough nut” in the world of metals belongs to the platinum group and has a high density. In fact, it is the densest natural element on Earth (22.61 g/cm3). For the same reason, osmium does not melt until 3033 °C.

When alloyed with other platinum group metals (such as iridium, platinum and palladium), it can be used in many different applications where hardness and durability are needed. For example, to create containers for storing nuclear waste.

1. Tungsten

The strongest metal found in nature. This rare chemical element is also the most refractory of the metals (3422 °C).

It was first discovered in the form of acid (tungsten trioxide) in 1781 by Swedish chemist Carl Scheele. Further research led two Spanish scientists, Juan José and Fausto d'Elhujar, to the discovery of acid from the mineral wolframite, from which they subsequently isolated tungsten using charcoal.

In addition to its widespread use in incandescent lamps, tungsten's ability to perform in extreme heat makes it one of the most attractive elements for the weapons industry. During World War II, this metal played an important role in initiating economic and political relations between European countries.

Tungsten is also used to make carbide and, in the aerospace industry, to make rocket nozzles.

Table of tensile strength of metals

Metal Designation Tensile strength, MPa

Lead	Pb	18
Tin	Sn	20
Cadmium	Cd	62
Aluminum	Al	80
Beryllium	Be	140
Magnesium	Mg	170
Copper	Cu	220
Cobalt	Co	240
Iron	Fe	250
Niobium	Nb	340
Nickel	Ni	400
Titanium	Ti	600
Molybdenum	Mo	700
Zirconium	Zr	950
Tungsten	W	1200

Alloys vs metals

Alloys are combinations of metals, and the main reason for their creation is to create a stronger material. The most important alloy is steel, which is a combination of iron and carbon.

The higher the strength of the alloy, the better. And ordinary steel is not the “champion” here. Alloys based on vanadium steel seem especially promising to metallurgists: several companies produce options with a tensile strength of up to 5205 MPa.

And the most durable and hardest biocompatible materials at the moment is the titanium alloy with gold β-Ti3Au.

Source: https://varimtutru.com/samaya-krepkaya-stal-v-mire/

What is the lightest metal in the world? - Data

Can you imagine what would have happened if our ancestors had not discovered important metals such as silver, gold, copper and iron? We would probably still be living in huts using stone as our main tool. It is the strength of the metal that played an important role in shaping our past and now works as the foundation on which we build the future.

Some of them are very soft and literally melt in your hands, like the most active metal in the world. Others are so hard that they cannot be bent, scratched or broken without the use of special tools.

And if you are wondering which metals are the hardest and most durable in the world, we will answer this question, taking into account various estimates of the relative hardness of materials (Mohs scale, Brinell method), as well as parameters such as:

• Young's modulus: takes into account the tensile elasticity of an element, that is, the ability of an object to resist elastic deformation.
• Yield Strength: Determines the maximum tensile strength of a material beyond which it begins to exhibit plastic behavior.
• Tensile strength: the limiting mechanical stress beyond which a material begins to fail.

Properties of metals

Iron and its alloys (steel, cast iron), copper, aluminum. The use of these materials marked breakthroughs in scientific and technological progress at different stages of the development of civilization. Each of these metals has characteristics that give it unique practical value. Common features for them are high thermal and electrical conductivity, plasticity - the ability to maintain integrity during deformation, metallic luster.

A damask blade that cuts through iron armor, and the softest metal, on which traces remain from the slightest impact, have a similar internal structure.

It is based on a crystal lattice, at the nodes of which there are atoms with a positive and neutral charge, between which there is an “electron gas” - particles that have left the outer shells of the atoms due to a weakening of the bond with the nucleus.

A special metallic bond between positive ions located at the nodes of the crystal lattice is carried out due to the attractive forces arising in the “electron gas”. The hardness, density, and melting point of the metal depend on the concentration of this “gas.”