How bronze is mined - Metals and their processing

How to make bronze in Minecraft

Bronze in Industrial Craft2
Bronze in Forestry

In pure Minecraft there is iron, there is gold, there are diamonds. But for some reason they forgot about bronze. Such a popular alloy, which has become a strategic material more than once in history - and overboard! What an injustice. But for every action (respect to Newton for this wisdom) there is a reaction, and even more so for inaction. Therefore, the guys who created “Industrial Craft2” rustled and added bronze. Of course, to make this alloy, you also need to rustle and install the mentioned mod.

Bronze in Industrial Craft2

Bronze in Minecraft is a concept that includes dust, ingots and blocks (made from this material, of course). Dust is the basis from which other bronze items are crafted, so it is logical to first learn how to mine it. In order to make it, according to the old version, you only need tin and copper dust, which should be arranged like this.

The new option offers crafters an alternative. If you want, you can be content with only this recipe in Minecraft. If you want, you can use purified or crushed copper ore as a replacement for copper dust. You can also replace tin dust with purified or crushed tin ore. Yes, you can see everything in the illustration yourself.

If you already have an ingot, and you also have a crusher in your Minecraft closet, an additional recipe becomes available to you.

Having dust makes you practically a bronze tycoon in Minecraft - you can now smelt ingots. The image shows exactly how the melting process occurs.

Having learned how to make pigs, you have the right to ask a not entirely chronologically logical question: why do you even need bronze in Minecraft? Although, most likely, you yourself understand that you can do many useful things with its help. Yes, yes, it is possible. And here they are, things:

Rails
Composite ingot
Wrench
Helmet
Leggings
Boots
Cuirass
Bronze block

And once again illustration comes to our rescue. She demonstrates exactly how to craft these items in Minecraft.

A bronze block is crafted from nine ingots. Its only practical use is compact storage of material. As usual in Minecraft, if you need ingots, we crush the block, that is, we perform the reverse process.

Bronze in Forestry

Ingots in Minecraft can be made not only in Industrial Craft2. You can craft them by installing the “Forestry” modification. In fact, with this mod it is even more profitable to mine the alloy. Here the ingredients are no longer dust, but tin and copper ingots. Simple mathematics leads to the conclusion that this strategy gives twice as much bronze.

Some of the ingots can be returned back if you repair broken items in Minecraft. Like, for example, in this screenshot.

In this mod, an alloy of tin and copper is used for crafting:

Durable machine
Wrench
Pickaxes
Shovels
Biofuel engine, etc.

This metal is a component in creating the Minecraft light bulb factory!

Source: https://azminecraft.ru/publ/3936-kak-v-minecraft-sdelat-bronzu.html

How to get bronze. How to make bronze - the main stages of production

The game Pokemon Go in many ways refers players to the animated series. You can track and catch your favorite monsters, evolve them and send them into battles with other Pokemon. At the same time, the game is completely devoid of the element of fierce rivalry. Even these fights don't stop players from forming friendships. To show yourself effective and strong, you need to know the basics of combat and some useful secrets.

Pokemon Power

There are many stats for Pokémon in the game, but the power stat is perhaps the most significant. It is called, and is shown as an arc above the image of the pet.

Combat Rower

CP determines the strength of the blow and durability in battle. It is possible to catch Pokemon with very high CP. They help evolve strong fighters. However, the maximum CP is rather an exception to the rule, and a larger number of Pokemon will have to be “fed” first, and only then evolve.

If you don't come across enough to successfully evolve it, you'll have to accumulate power yourself. Its increase is facilitated by the direct increase in CP (Power Up) and (Evolve).

Types of Pokemon, their combination in battle

The type of Pokemon plays an important role in battle. There are 17 of them in Pokemon Go. The type depends on the origin of the Pokemon and its physiology. Taking into account the vulnerability of certain elements in real life, the game increases or decreases the attack when two opposing elements collide. So, for example, they are effective against, and stronger.

Rules for a successful fight:

Stone, steel, ice, as well as normal and dark Pokemon cannot withstand the blows of fighting Pokemon.
Flying monsters destroy insects and grass monsters without any problems. Effective against combat.
Fire and ice ones do not hold up well against stone ones. Insects and flying Pokemon won't help either.
The Psychic type is not very powerful and almost everyone can resist it. These just do not include poisonous and combat monsters.
It’s stupid to field a dragon, dark or fighting Pokemon against magical ones.
Water and flying ones do not hold back electric attacks.
Ice ones attack earth, grass, flying and dragons with redoubled force.
Perhaps, ground Pokémon have the fewest opponents. They easily penetrate the protection of poisonous, stone, steel, fire and electric.
Aquatic ones have proven to be strong and easy to control. They are stronger in battle with fire, stone and earth ones.
Earth, water and stone are sensitive to grass attacks.
Steel monsters are merciless with stone, magic and ice ones.
Fire Pokemon destroy everything in their path. Their flames burn insects and grass Pokémon, melt ice and steel.
Dark and Ghosts are the most oppressive to other Ghosts and Psychic Pokémon.
Feel free to throw the poisonous ones to capture the hall where the magical and earthen ones stand.
Dark ones, oddly enough, are susceptible to attack by insects. Just like psychic and herbal ones.
Dragons reveal their full power only in battle with a dragon.

Unproductive combinations:

ghost > normal;
ground > flying;
electric > earth;
normal > ghost;
combat > ghost;
poisonous > steel;
psychic > dark;
dragon > magical.

If you try to attack the second ones first, you run a great risk of losing. The blows may not have any effect at all. Otherwise, the message Not effective will appear.

All actions are thought out by the developers, even from a logical point of view, because it is difficult to poison steel and get a flying Pokemon from the ground.

How to attack

Each monster can fight quickly and make a super attack. Regular strikes are carried out by periodically short taps on the screen. The super attack is activated by long pressing. This is the control mechanics.

Types of attacks, their impact on the effectiveness of Pokemon

There are many types of attacks in the game. Pokémon of the same species can have completely different attacks in terms of specificity and strength. The most successful combination is considered to be a set of abilities of the same type. For example, the fighting monster Machoke (the second evolution of Machop) is ideal if it has all Fighting attacks, and the fiery Flareon has collected all Fire moves.

You can find these options by opening the Pokemon menu. The type is listed below the Pokemon on the left. Attack indicators at the bottom of the screen. Each of them has its own strength. It is displayed opposite its name. The first line represents fast strikes. The Pokémon that deals more damage from such attacks is considered stronger.

On the second line you can see a blue line or dotted line. This is the frequency of super attacks that can be performed. That is, the more divisions, the less time it takes to reload, but the blow weakens.

One big bar is even better in the sense that the Pokemon remains defenseless if you constantly hold the screen for a super attack.

Types of attacks

Sorting attacks by Pokemon type is not the last thing in the game. There are different fast attacks, for example, for ice and water Pokemon. One monster may receive an attack with more damage, and a second monster of the same type may receive another with less damage. We have collected complete information about them for you. With its help, you can analyze the potential of a Pokemon and correctly distribute forces.

Characteristics of fast attacks

TypeNameDamage/energy/time (s)

Poisonous	Acid	10/7/1,05
Poison Jab	15/7/1,05
Poison Sting	6/4/0,575
Dark	Bite	6/7/0,5
Feint Attack	12/7/0,04
Sucker Punch	7/4/0,7
Vine Whip	7/7/0,65
Water	Bubble	25/15/2,3
Splash	0/7/1,23
Water Gun	6/7/0,5
Insect	Bug Bite	5/7/0,4
Fury Cutter	3/12/0,4
Steel	Bullet Punch	10/7/1,2
Metal Claw	12/7/0,63
Steel Wing	15/4/1,33
Mental	Confusion	15/7/1,51

Source: https://bizplas.ru/kak-dobyt-bronzu-kak-sdelat-bronzu-osnovnye-etapy/

How did people in the Bronze Age mine copper and tin?

The Bronze Age owes its name and beginning to the moment when they learned to add tin to copper and thus obtained bronze. This happened in the 3rd millennium BC.

Golden pink metal

Copper was practically the first metal with which man worked very closely. This was due to the fact that extracting copper from ore was not so difficult, and the ore itself was not uncommon.

The metal gets its rich yellow-red hue as a result of being enveloped in air by an oxide film.

Copper itself is ductile and has a golden-pink hue, which distinguishes it (along with gold, cesium and osmium) from other metals with their gray-silver tint. In the modern world, copper is obtained in three ways:

Pyrometallurgy – working with sulfide ores.
Hydrometallurgy – working with acids and solutions.
Electrolysis – working with a solution of copper sulfate.

Silver metal

Low melting point, lightness, ductility and corrosion resistance - these properties make tin a desirable metal.

Its purity is judged by the so-called “tin scream” - when bent, a block of pure tin makes a creaking sound (reminiscent of the creaking of frosty snow under your foot), and with the slightest admixture there will be no “scream” at all. Melting tin is very simple - just a candle flame.

This made it possible to make various household items from a beautiful silver-white metal, and the addition of tin to copper made it possible to obtain a harder metal - bronze, which became a symbol of an entire era.

The period when individual products began to be cast from tin without the addition of other metals is not yet known with certainty. There are very few archaeological finds of this type, so it is quite difficult to judge the beginning of the use of tin as an independent material for making anything.

Bronze Age miners

If we talk about what happened with copper and tin in ancient times, then, despite many known facts, there are still quite a lot of unsolved secrets. Ancient ore mines are found all over the world: the Urals, Western Siberia, Africa, Tibet.

This is not the entire list of places where mining was carried out.

To be fair, it is worth noting that the ancient miners, in the absence of any scientific geological knowledge, worked quite carefully with the ore veins - they walked along and selected only the largest lenses, leaving small inclusions without attention.

Another fact is striking: with fairly large volumes of copper and tin mined, only noble people could afford copper jewelry. The question arises: “Where did the surplus go?” Another characteristic feature of ancient ore mining sites is the absence of smelting furnaces in the vicinity of the mine. This suggests that the ore was transported to centralized locations for processing.

Source: https://olovok.com/kak-lyudi-v-bronzovyiy-vek-dobyivali-med-i-olovo/

Ukrainian swimmer won bronze in the 50-meter butterfly in Beijing

KYIV. January 19. UNN. Ukrainian swimmer Andrey Govorov wins bronze in the 50-meter butterfly at the second stage of the FINA Champions Swim Series in Beijing. His time is 23.19. This is reported by UNN with reference to the NOC.

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Bronze - composition, properties and production of the alloy

Bronze as a material for the manufacture of products for various purposes has been used by man since ancient times.

And in our time, this alloy has not lost its high popularity: it is actively used both by manufacturing enterprises that make elements of various mechanisms and structures from it, and by home craftsmen who decide to engage in artistic casting.

However, before you start working with this copper alloy, you need to carefully study its characteristics, as well as become familiar with the methods of its processing.

Bronze rods produced for further use in various industries can be round, square or hexagonal in cross section

Features and Benefits

Bronze, which is a non-ferrous metal, is a copper-based alloy. Since ancient times, bronzes have been most widespread, the chemical composition of which, in addition to copper, contains tin. Instead of tin, various grades of bronze may contain elements such as beryllium, iron, aluminum, lead, silicon, etc.

chemical elements in cast bronzes are regulated by GOST 493-79, 613-79

The high popularity that bronze has enjoyed for many centuries is explained by such advantages as:

high hardness and strength when comparing this metal with copper (by the way, some grades of bronze, in particular beryllium, surpass even high-quality steel in their strength characteristics);
lower melting point compared to copper;
good fluidity in the molten state, which makes it possible to successfully use bronze for casting;
exceptionally high corrosion resistance;
wear resistance, which is maintained even during long-term use of bronze products under conditions of high friction.

Of course, bronze alloys also have disadvantages. Let us list the most significant of them.

The not too high ductility of bronze limits the possibility of manufacturing products from it by plastic deformation (rolling, forging, stamping, etc.).
Bronze, due to some of its characteristics, is poorly processed by cutting.
Products made of bronze, in particular tools made from it, are difficult to sharpen.

Bronze is used for the manufacture of rubbing and heavily loaded parts that can work in fresh and sea water

By the name of a certain brand of bronze alloy, you can determine which element, other than copper, is included in its chemical composition. Thus, bronze containing tin is called tin, an alloy containing beryllium is beryllium bronze, aluminum is called aluminum bronze, etc.

As mentioned above, the most widespread are tin bronzes, which, due to the fact that bells were made and continue to be made from them, are often called bell bronzes. The classic composition of bronze alloys of this type contains 80% copper (±3%) and 20% tin (also ±3%). To give such bronze improved characteristics, alloying elements can be added to its composition - lead, nickel, arsenic and phosphorus.

Processing temperature and technological features of tin bronzes

Depending on its chemical composition, bronze can be single-component, in which only one additional metal is present, or multicomponent, with several additional elements. Naturally, bronzes, for the manufacture of which several elements were used, are distinguished by improved characteristics.

In the production of multicomponent alloys, a distinction is made between the concepts of primary and secondary bronze. The first type of alloy, often used as a raw material, contains only copper and tin. Primary bronze is used for the production of secondary alloys, for which the necessary alloying elements are added to it.

Bronze alloys (cast alloys are marked with an asterisk)

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According to historical data obtained as a result of many archaeological excavations, bronze products began to be used by humans as early as the 4th millennium BC. It is no coincidence that a fairly long period in the development of mankind is called the Bronze Age. Those who today try to make anything from bronze at home are faced with the same problems as ancient man, who made products from it for various purposes.

Production using classical technology

In order to produce a metal such as bronze, it is necessary to melt not only copper, but also an alloying additive in a special container. Such smelting can be performed at home using various heating devices - a muffle or induction furnace, forge, gas burner, etc.

For melting in serial production, induction crucible furnaces (ITFE) are used.

When making a bronze alloy, both in production and at home, one should take into account the fact that when molten copper is mixed with tin, oxides are formed, which significantly worsen the characteristics of the finished alloy.

In order to exclude such a process from the production of bronze, it is necessary to add phosphorous copper to the mixture of molten metals, the amount of phosphorus in which does not exceed 10%.

The use of such an inexpensive deoxidizer as phosphorus copper, the use of which produces gaseous phosphorus anhydrite, although it contributes to the effective removal of non-metallic inclusions from copper, leads to a significant deterioration in such a characteristic of the metal as electrical conductivity.

This can be avoided by using more expensive deoxidizers, which are based on elements such as lithium, calcium and potassium. The surface of molten copper actively interacts with the surrounding air, which leads to intense oxidation of this metal.

To make the oxidation process less intense, crushed charcoal is used to cover the surface of the alloy being created.

It will not be possible to melt bronze for a bell with a gas torch, but for a small figurine or sleeve it is quite possible

Classic bronze production technology consists of the following stages.

Copper is melted under a layer of flux or charcoal, heating the furnace to a temperature of 1100°.
For high-quality deoxidation, phosphorous copper is added to the alloy, the amount of which in relation to the mass of the original components should not exceed 10%.
After the copper is completely melted, tin is added to it if it is necessary to obtain a single-component alloy, or several elements to produce multi-component bronze.
The resulting alloy, in order to achieve homogeneity of its structure, is heated to a temperature of 1200°.
To remove harmful impurities from the alloy, which include sulfur, bismuth, manganese, antimony, aluminum, iron, silicon, oxygen and hydrogen compounds, it is refined, which involves oxidizing the main component.
Improving the mechanical properties of bronze is carried out using an operation such as modification.
A technological operation such as casting (performed at a temperature of 1300°) allows making a product of the required shape from molten metal.

Bronze, which contains tin in its chemical composition, is more suitable for casting operations. Bronzes of this type, when compared with aluminum alloys, which are not recommended to be heated above a temperature of 1200°, are less easy to cast and are not prone to overheating.

How bronzes are made without tin

To make aluminum-type bronze, you need to consider a number of points. Thus, copper and aluminum, which form the basis of such an alloy, have different densities, which often leads to their delamination in the composition of bronze. That is why foundry production of alloys of this type has the following features.

Copper, as in the case of tin bronze production, is melted and deoxidized under a layer of flux.
Additional elements are introduced into the composition of copper, which is in a completely molten state, and then the alloy is thoroughly mixed.
To improve the properties of future bronze, deoxidizing agents are reintroduced into the alloy.
After secondary deoxidation, aluminum is added to the molten copper.
The surface of the molten metal, in order to reduce the intensity of its oxidation when interacting with the surrounding air, is covered with a layer of flux, which can be used as crushed charcoal.
At the final stage, the alloy is refined with manganese chloride, modified with vanadium, boron or tungsten, and only then poured into pre-prepared casting molds.

Sampling allows you to control the casting process of bronze alloys

The process of producing beryllium bronzes, which are produced using induction furnaces and graphite crucibles, deserves special attention. It should be borne in mind that when smelting bronzes of this type, toxic fumes are released into the surrounding atmosphere, which requires the use of a powerful ventilation system during the production process. Moreover, it is best to cast such bronzes in isolated rooms.

Bronzes containing silicon, like aluminum ones, are produced using charcoal as a flux, and induction furnaces are used for their smelting.

The result of the production of bronze of any type is pigs, the weight of each of them can reach up to 42 kg

All pigs obtained as a result of a separate smelting belong to one batch of the alloy, the total weight of which is not limited. For the entire batch of bronze, which may contain different numbers of pigs, a document is issued that reflects basic information about the presented products:

trademark of the manufacturer;
grade of alloy presented in the batch;
total weight and lot number;
the number of ingots that make it up;
results of the chemical analysis of the alloy.

Areas of application of various bronze alloys

Products made from bronze of various grades are actively used in various industries, as well as in everyday life. In particular, the following are made from alloys of this type:

fittings and parts that are used in direct contact with aggressive media (oil, sea water, high humidity, etc.);
parts subject to active wear during operation (bearings, liners, rings and other loaded elements of mechanisms);
shaped parts of pipelines for various purposes.

This is just a small list of areas where products made from various grades of bronze can be successfully used. In fact, their scope of use is much wider.

Source: http://met-all.org/cvetmet-splavy/bronza/bronza-sostav-harakteristiki.html

Bronze as an alloy of two metals: types, composition and properties of the material

Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin, aluminum, lead, silicon and beryllium. The composition of the alloy can include a variety of metals, the names of which give the name: tin bronze, aluminum. The percentage of impurities should not exceed 2.5%.

The exceptions are nickel and zinc - copper alloys with these elements are called cupronickel and brass, respectively.

However, a small amount of zinc may still be present in the composition - its amount must be lower than the sum of all other impurities, otherwise the alloy will be considered brass.

The name itself comes from the Italian “bronzo”. The alloy was first used in the 35-33rd century BC . (exact dates have not been established) when the Bronze Age began, which replaced the Copper Age.

Thanks to improved processing of copper and tin, it was possible to obtain a fairly durable and beautiful alloy, which lasted almost until the 11th century BC.

It was used for the production of arrow and spear tips, daggers, knives, swords and other bladed weapons, for the production of furniture parts, mirrors, dishes, vases, jugs, jewelry, statues and coins.

In the Middle Ages, bronze was used to make church bells and cannons; the latter were made from special gun bronze until the 19th century.

Physical properties

The physical properties of an alloy depend on its composition and can vary significantly. Unlike brass, bronze has higher anti-corrosion resistance and anti-friction properties. It is more durable and has strong resistance to air, water, salt, and organic acids. Bronze is also easy to solder and weld .

Density: 7800-8700 kg/m3.
Melting point: 930С – 1140С.
Color ranges from red to white.
It has increased wear resistance and a low friction coefficient, copes even at low temperatures down to -250С.
Some types of bronze have high vapor resistance, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity and are used in equipment operating in harsh conditions.

Receipt

Bronze is made by fusing copper with various metals to enhance certain characteristics. For this purpose, induction furnaces and crucible forges , suitable for melting any copper alloys. Melting is usually carried out under a layer of charcoal or flux. For smelting, either fresh ore that has not yet been processed or secondary waste can be used. The latter are usually added to fresh copper during the smelting process.

When using only fresh ore, the following order is observed: coal or flux is placed in a preheated furnace, copper is loaded and heated until it melts - 1150Co - 1170Co. Then the metal is oxidized by adding copper phosphorous, sometimes it is introduced in several stages - 50% immediately, 50% in a ladle. After deoxidation, additional additives are introduced, heated to 100Co - 120Co .

If additional metals are refractory, then they are first completely dissolved in liquid copper and then heated to a certain temperature. Having pulled the alloy out of the furnace, it is deoxidized by introducing 50% phosphorous copper to get rid of oxides.

If secondary metals or waste are used, then pure copper is first melted, deoxidized with phosphorous copper and secondary metals are added. After melting the latter, additives are introduced into the liquid copper and wait until they melt.

After heating to a certain temperature, the alloy is deoxidized with phosphorous copper and covered with dried flux or calcined charcoal. The mixture is heated and left for 20-30 minutes, stirring occasionally.

When the time is up, the protruding slag is removed from the surface and poured into molds.

Types of bronze

Tin

Tin bronze is most widely used in modern industry. This is an alloy of copper and tin (in the classic ratio of 80% to 20%), which has good strength and hardness, is easier to melt and has high anti-corrosion resistance and anti-friction properties.

Tin bronze is difficult to forge, roll, cut, sharpen, and stamp and is generally only suitable for solid casting. A small draft (no more than 1%) allows the material to be used when creating particularly precise products in artistic casting.

Other metals can be added to the alloy if desired .

Zinc (no more than 10%) increases the corrosion resistance of the alloy and is used to create elements of ships and vessels that will often come into contact with sea water.
Thanks to the addition of lead and phosphorus, the antifriction properties of bronze can be significantly improved, and the alloy is also easier to process by pressure and cutting.

Tinless

In some cases, the use of tin is unacceptable. In this case, other metals come to the rescue, the addition of which allows you to obtain the necessary characteristics. And although tin bronze is the standard and most in demand, tin-free bronzes are not inferior to it.

Leaded or leaded

Lead bronze is an excellent anti-friction alloy, it resists pressure well, has increased strength and refractoriness. It is used for the manufacture of bearings that are subject to the greatest pressure during operation.

Kremnetzinc

Silica-zinc bronze consists of copper (97.12%), silicon (0.05%) and tin (1.14%). It is quite fluid and plastic, which allows it to be used as a material for products of complex shapes. It has increased resistance to compression, is not magnetic and does not produce sparks during processing. It is distinguished by elasticity and anti-friction properties, does not lose plasticity at low temperatures, and is well soldered. Often contains nickel or manganese.

Bronze is used in the manufacture of springs, bearings, grilles, guide bushings, evaporators and networks.

Beryllium

Beryllium bronze is the hardest of all types. It has increased anti-corrosion properties and heat resistance, is stable at low temperatures, does not produce sparks on impacts and is not magnetic. The metal is hardened at 750Co - 790Co, aged at 300Co - 325Co. Nickel, iron or cobalt are sometimes added to beryllium bronze to facilitate the hardening technology. In addition, beryllium can be replaced with nickel.

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The material is used to create springs and spring parts, membranes, and for watch parts.

Aluminum

Aluminum bronze consists of copper (95%) and aluminum (5%). It has a pleasant golden color and shine, and can withstand prolonged exposure to aggressive environments, such as acids. The alloy has a higher casting density, heat resistance and increased strength, and tolerates low temperatures well. Among the disadvantages, it is worth noting weaker corrosion resistance, stronger shrinkage, as well as strong gas absorption in the liquid state.

Bronze is used to make car parts and in gunpowder production; gears, bushings, coins and medals are smelted.

Other metals

In addition to those mentioned above, bronze may also contain other elements. Nickel and iron increase the recrystallization temperature and promote grain refinement. Chromium and zirconium reduce electrical conductivity and increase the heat resistance of bronze.

Marking

To choose the right metal option, just look carefully at its markings. This will help to accurately determine the features and characteristics of the selected species.

The letters “Br” come first - this means “Bronze”. Then one or more letters are located in a row, behind which additives are hidden: O - Tin, A - Aluminum, K - Silicon, N - Nickel, Mts - Manganese, F - Iron, S - Lead, F - Phosphorus, C - Zinc, B - Beryllium. Next, numbers are written through a hyphen - this is the percentage of each additive in turn.

For example, the designation Br A ZH N -10 -4 -5 can be deciphered as follows: Bronze containing Aluminum (10%), Iron (4%) and Nickel (4%).

Application

Bronze is actively used in industry and in a variety of fields. First of all, bronze is used in rolled products of the same name: it is produced in the form of pipes, wire, sheets and rods.

The metal can also be found in the automotive, chemical, food, construction and fuel industries. It is used to produce gears, bearings, bushings, springs and other parts that are exposed to aggressive environments and often operate under high pressure.

Unlike brass, bronze tolerates mechanical loads and is more ductile.

Metal is used to produce art objects, sculptures, forged items, jewelry, dishes and artistic objects.

Source: https://stanok.guru/cvetnye-metally-i-splavy/bronza/chto-takoe-bronza-vidy-splava-sostav-i-svoystva.html

Extraction of raw materials and bronze manufacturing technologies

The Bronze Age spans approximately the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. It was at this time that the full metallurgical cycle was developed and implemented: mining, preparation, burning of coal, smelting and refining. Since then, the equipment has changed, they began to use a different method of ore development, but the main stages of the technology have not changed at all.

In this article we will look at the technology for producing, smelting (smelting) bronze, features and methods of producing casting from it in Russia.

An alloy is cast from copper, as well as tin, aluminum, beryllium, lead, and so on. In ancient times, native copper was used for this, but later interest shifted to ores rich in this and other metals.

Today, in addition to native copper, chalcopyrite - copper pyrite, bornite, chalcocite - is of industrial importance. You can use malachite, azurite or cuprite. A mine in which the metal content reaches 0.3–1% is considered promising. Ore is mined mainly by open-pit mining.

Copper is extracted by 3 main methods: pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical and electrolytic.

Pyrometallurgical – the most common, includes several operations. First, copper ore is enriched by flotation or oxidative roasting. The first method is based on the different degrees of wettability between gangue and copper. As a result of enrichment, a concentrate with a metal content of 10–35% is obtained. Oxidative roasting is more suitable for sulfur ores: the mineral is heated twice to a temperature of 700–800 C to anneal the sulfur. The copper matte obtained after enrichment is purged in converters and blister copper with a metal content of up to 91% is obtained. Then the metal is refined by fire cleaning or electrolytic cleaning and pure copper is obtained - 99.9%.
The hydrometallurgical method involves leaching copper with sulfuric acid to produce a solution of copper and other metals. This method is used in the development of depleted ore.

Tin is the second most popular component of bronze. Obtained from cassiterite, stanine or nigerite. The ore is enriched by mechanical methods, washed to obtain ore concentrate, then subjected to reduction smelting and refining - thermal or electrolytic. Other metals - aluminum, beryllium, lead, are also obtained using appropriate methods.

Bronze has at least 2 components - copper and another metal or non-metal other than nickel and zinc. The alloy can also be multicomponent: such compositions are somewhat more difficult to obtain, but their technical characteristics are more interesting.

This video will tell you how bronze has been produced over the centuries:

Since the composition of different types of bronze is very diverse, a variety of combinations of charge material are used to obtain it. The combinations can be the following:

only fresh metals, which is quite rare;
metal and secondary alloys with ligature;
from circulating alloys;
only from secondary alloys.

When determining the composition of the charge, the type of furnace, the purity of the components, the degree of burning of the alloy ingredients, and so on are taken into account.

The most common charge composition includes:

50–60% fresh metal;
20–35% circulating alloys;
10–12% scrap if the charge is selected from secondary alloys.

Next, we consider the technologies for manufacturing and casting bronze.

Production technologies

Either pure metals or ready-made alloys in ingots are used as a charge for producing bronze. The first option is less common and is more often used for expensive wrought bronzes. The second one is readily used to produce cast alloys.

Melting based on pigs

Melting using this technology includes 4 stages: melting, overheating, refining and degassing treatment.

An important condition for smelting, regardless of what type of furnace is used, is the minimum duration of the procedure. The shorter the melting time, the lower the risk of saturation of the alloy with gases and the lower the waste of non-ferrous metal.

– for this purpose, graphite-chamotte or graphite-carboride crucibles are used. Before use they are dried and calcined.
Melting begins with smelting copper, which is loaded in parts or completely. The copper is smelted as quickly as possible under a layer of charcoal. Phosphorous copper is added. The addition of phosphorus provides liquid phosphates, which are much easier to remove from the alloy. After this, tin and other alloy components are introduced into the crucibles, if they are provided for in the recipe.
Overheating - the melt heats up to 1150–1200 C. Tin bronze is smelted with a coating of charcoal or coal with salts. If the feedstock is contaminated with silicon, magnesium, or aluminum, liquid salt fluxes are used.
Degassing – removal of gas impurities, mainly hydrogen. For this purpose, the melt is purged with dried argon or nitrogen. The procedure time ranges from 3 to 10 minutes depending on the size of the oven.

As a rule, the manufacturing process includes a modification step in order to improve the mechanical properties of bronze. The methods are determined by the composition of the product and its purpose.

Gating systems

Copper alloys create fairly high metallostatic pressure, so bronze casting includes a number of features. Conventional sand molds are not suitable for copper alloys, so molding mixtures with a high clay content are used.

The mold is poured at a temperature of 1100–1200 C. In this case, a metallized burn may appear, which is difficult to remove. The higher the phosphorus content in bronze and the higher the casting temperature, the higher the risk. It is impossible to refuse the addition of phosphorus: the substance increases the fluidity of the alloy, which, in turn, ensures the density of the casting and low shrinkage. So the problem is solved by adding carbon-containing components to the molding mixture - shale resins, for example.

For casting, special equipment is used - gating systems. The choice of process temperature depends on the system design as well as the mass and configuration of the casting.

To ensure high density of castings, a method of directed solidification using refrigerators is used. Rapid cooling reduces the porous zone and increases the thickness of the casting skin.

This video will tell you about melting bronze from brass:

This method is more often used to produce tin bronze castings. The main difference is the use of metal molds for casting - chill mold. This causes a higher solidification rate and, accordingly, a high casting density.

The chill mold is cast from cast iron, the rods are made from steel. Complex cavities are made using shell sand rods. Before pouring, the mold is lubricated with a mixture of machine oil and 6% graphite.

Pouring is carried out into molds preheated to 150–250 C. The castings are removed from the mold as soon as they have acquired sufficient mechanical strength, thus reducing shrinkage stress.

Centrifugal casting

In this way, up to 37% of all workpieces in the machine tool industry are obtained. The method is equally suitable for both large and small parts.

For this purpose, horizontal centrifugal machines are used, in which a steel mold is placed on several roller supports. The casting is made into a mold, the outside of which is cooled with water.

Small parts are cast on console-type machines.

Necessary equipment

As in most non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, the equipment used to produce bronze depends on many factors: the raw materials used, the characteristics of the smelting, the composition of the finished bronze, the financial capabilities of the enterprises, and so on. Smelting is still a very delicate and highly probable process, and two identical plants can use completely different technologies.

For smelting, a device and furnace power are selected that would ensure the fastest possible melting of copper and other components. There are several options for this.

Electric furnaces - arc and induction . The latter can be with or without a steel core. Recently, induction crucible furnaces have become more common. In this case, it is easier to prepare the device for a new melt, and the waste in such furnaces does not exceed 0.5–1%.
Electric arc furnaces with indirect heating - the arc is formed between horizontal graphite electrodes. During melting, the furnace rocks at an ever-increasing angle as the temperature rises. In this way, local overheating of the melt can be avoided.

For casting copper alloy, various types of gating systems are used. Their design is determined by the composition of the alloy, the size and configuration of the casting, and so on.

The most common device refers to expanding systems with siphon - bottom, and top side inlet. This design is universal and allows you to obtain parts of both simple and complex configurations.
To obtain blanks with simple configurations, rain or top gating systems are used.
If castings are produced from alloys that do not form high-strength oxide films, then devices without complex slag traps are used. Otherwise, such a device is necessary.
If you need to obtain small-sized workpieces, you can use systems with bottom supply.

Next, bronze producers in Russia are considered.

Bronze is a sought-after material of considerable importance for the national economy. It is produced by very well-known enterprises.

The Kolchuginsky OCM plant offers 20 thousand standard sizes of different types of rolled metal from more than 70 grades of alloys. A significant part of the assortment consists of a variety of bronzes. Today, the plant provides 30% of all rolled non-ferrous metals in the Russian Federation.
The Kamensk-Ural OCM plant produces products based on 140 different alloys, including zirconium and chrome bronze - heat-resistant alloys.
Kirov OCM plant has been operating since 1956. This is one of the largest enterprises producing copper and copper alloys of various compositions.
OJSC Revdinsky Non-Ferrous Metals Processing Plant specializes in the production of pipes and rods made of copper and copper alloys - brass, bronze, cupronickel. The plant has been certified for compliance with the international standard ISO 9002:1994.

World production of copper and copper alloys is determined largely by metal resources. The leaders in the production of refined copper are the USA, Chile and Japan. The USA is also the largest consumer of copper and copper alloys.

Bronze production is a metallurgical process developed in ancient times and still used today. In fact, it was the creation of bronze that served as a model for the development of all other pyrometallurgical processes for producing alloys.

Making a wax model for bronze casting at home is discussed in this video:

Source: http://stroyres.net/metallicheskie/vidyi/tsvetnyie/bronza/syire-i-tehnologii-proizvodstva.html

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